



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 


(El)ap. AS 105 
5STo. -I (o 


m UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 














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OUTLINES 


OP 

GENERAL KNOWLEDGE; 

FORMING A 

CONCISE INTRODUCTION 

TO EVERY BRANCH OF 

@Lvt, Sconce, anti iLiurature, 


BY 

HENRY INCE, M.A., 

Author of “ Outlines of English History “ Outlines of French History 

SfC. &[C. 


THIRTEENTH THOUSAND-MUCH EXTENDED. 


LONDON: 

JAMES GILBERT, 49, PATERNOSTER ROW. 


1850. 

T.&, 





INTRODUCTION. 

« 

— 00 - 

Nothing is so important as knowledge, principally because it exercises 
a power of the most important character during our life ; to simplify it, 
and prepare the key to open its vast and varied stores, is not only a 
pleasing employment, but a noble exercise. There are gradations in 
knowledge ; and the man whose discoveries have enlightened the world, 
was once as ignorant as the untaught savage ; the elements and outlines 
may induce the mind, step by step, to an investigation of nature’s 
deepest laws ; but before those laws can be understood, the elements 
must be thoroughly mastered. 

To learn every thing is neither possible nor desirable : some men may 
attain a large share of knowledge, but this height they will never attain ; 
it is likewise better that one branch of science or knowledge should be 
well understood, than that the mind should be partially acquainted with 
several branches ; it is nevertheless desirable that the objects, principles, 
and intentions of all the sciences should be grafted in the mind. 

There are various means by which knowledge may be obtained : the 
most important are reading and conversation ; of these, conversation is 
the clearest method, reading is the safest. There are few who are capable 
of conversation—it is only by a long co'urse of reading and study that a 
man can arrive at that eminence when his extemporaneous speeches are 
valuable. Beading is the great means of obtaining knowledge : it may 
also be termed conversation, since by it we hold intercourse with the 
mighty dead and most illustrious living. Without study, however, 
reading and conversation will be alike in vain—study will reduce 
knowledge to practice. It was a wise saying of Parrhasius, the painter, 
“ nulla dies sine linca ” (no day without a line): he alluded to his pro¬ 
gress with a painting he had in hand ; let every one adopt the same 
motto in relation to study, and determine, that no day shall pass with¬ 
out at least one idea or one fragment of knowledge being gained, and 
the advantage will soon be perceived. 


Suggestions for the improvement of this or any of the series of ‘ Outlines' 
to he addressed to the Publisher. 



* 


OUTLINES 

OP 

GENERAL KNOWLEDGE. 


NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 

When we are called to tlie investigation of nature, two 
circumstances arrest our attention—nature active, and naturo 
passive. When nature passive attracts our notice, we are 
engaged in the study of natural history, and we only recog¬ 
nise colour, place, figure, &c.; when engaged in the study of 
nature active, all possess life, and we are studying natural 
philosophy and motion—time and gravity arrest our mind. 

Natural history teaches that things exist; philosophy tells 
us how they came to be, and how they continue to be. 

All nature is composed of matter, and matter exists in 
Bpace; matter is a concentration of infinitely small atoms 
existing in unison, called solids ; of atoms so excited over¬ 
coming the pressure of the medium in which they are placed 
called fluids ; of atoms so excited as to overcome the pressure 
and ascend and fill a space of their own in orbits, called gas. 

Matter has several properties : I. Impenetrability : two 
bodies cannot occupy the same place at the same moment of 
time. II. Magnitude : all bodies fill a certain portion of 
space. III. Figure : all bodies possess shape and form. IV. 
divisibility : all bodies may be separated into parts. V. 
Porosity: all bodies are composed of atoms not immediately 
in contact with each other, through which lighter atoms pass. 
Nature possesses other properties, as volume, dilatability, 
compressibility, &c.; some we shall notice under the head— 

DYNAMICS. 

This term is derived from two Greek words ; it is used to 
signify power and force, and teaches the laws which govern 
the universe, and upon its principles the world and even the 
universe itself hangs for existence j it tends to illustrate the 
properties of matter, which are, 

I. Inertia: all bodies have a natural tendency to rest 
unless set in motion. II. Impulse: which may be defined as 
weight or density, and arises from the downward tendency of 
all bodies to the earth. The quantity of matter multiplied 
by the velocity of motion constitutes the relative momentum 

a 2 


4 


DYNAMICS—ACOUSTICS. 


of all bodies in like circumstances ; thus, if a body weighs 
four pounds and is moved twenty feet in a second, its 
momentum is eighty pounds. 

Although a spectator seeing an apple fall from a tree may 
think it falls straight, it is not so; while the apple is falling 
the earth is moving, and the tree is moving ; the apple of 
course is moving, and it is the patient of these movements ; 
therefore it does not fall pei’pendicularly, but performs a 
curvature. Bodies in falling receive continual acceleration, 
and in rising are equally retarded. 

Gravity is a term signifying weight, and is used to indicate 
the force by which matter is carried towards the centre of the 
earth. Every body in nature has a centre of gravity ; wdien 
a loaded coach, or cart, or boat, is upset, it is because the 
centre of gravity, which maintains stability, is lost. 

The law of gravitation was discovered by the immortal 
Newton ; when sitting in his garden, he observed an apple 
falling from a tree : from that circumstance he drew the fact 
that all bodies mutually attract each other, the sun attracting 
the planets, the planets attracting their moons and satellites, 
and so on throughout the universe. 

The pendulum is an important instrument in natural philo¬ 
sophy ; it is any body which in its oscillations describes an 
arc ; its importance was discovered by Galileo, from observing 
the regular motions of the chandeliers of a drawing-room 
upon being accidentally shaken. The time of a pendulum is 
very nearly equal, whether the motion be much or little : the 
reason is, that the arc is more extended, and consequently the 
pendulum has to travel farther, which counterbalances the 
accelerated motion. 

The length of the pendulum determines the time of its 
journey ; the longer it is, the more slowly it vibrates, because 
it has a greater journey to perform without a steeper line of 
descent. The pendulum determines by its vibrations the 
amount of centrifugal force in the various parts of the globe, 
because the centrifugal , operating in opposition to the centri¬ 
petal force, diminishes its effects, and consequently when the 
force is more efficient the pendulum will vibrate more slowly. 

ACOUSTICS. 

The term is derived from two Greek words, and its purpose 
is to investigate the nature, causes, phenomena, and laws of 
sound. 


ACOUSTICS. 


Sound is to be regarded as vibrations in the air, caused by 
vibrations of the sounding body acting in pulsations or con¬ 
centric waves, like the surface of water into which a stone is 
thrown. The principal causes of the variety of sounds, and 
from which arise their height, modification, and strength,, 
are—I. The greater or less frequency* of the vibrations. II. 
The quantity of force of the vibrating materials. III. The 
greater or less simplicity of the sounds. 

Water, timber, and flannel, are good conductors of sound: 
but air is the principal vehicle. Sound travels at the rate of 
1142 feet in a second, or 13 miles a minute; the softest 
whisper travels as swiftly as the loudest thunder; no obstacle 
hinders its progress; wind only is a small matter diminishing 
its velocity. Cold fogs, by increasing the density of the 
atmosphere, although they do not diminish its elasticity, 
diminish its velocity ; warm vapours have a contrary effect. 
All sounds do not travel the same distance : thus, on ap¬ 
proaching an organ while playing, we hear the bass tones* 
first j the grave notes therefore are heard previous to those 
which are high. 

The distance to which sound may be heard depends upon 
the roughness or smoothness of the surface over which it 
passes: it is heard better over the smooth water than over 
rough and uneven country. The great bell of St. Paul’s has 
been heard at Windsor, a distance of twenty miles. 

The ear is, next to the eye, the most complicated part of 
the human frame : the outer part collects and transmits the 
currents of air into the passage which leads to the tympanum: 
this passage is defended by small hairs and a waxy substance, 
which is to prevent the intrusion of insects and dangerous 
substances ; at its end is the drum, which conveys the sensa¬ 
tion of sound: to these are added some small bones for 
extension or modification of sound. The last action still 
prevents the escape of air and renders the sound certain: tho 
vestibule of the ear transmits the sound to the brain. 

Amongst the phenomena of sound we may notice remark¬ 
able echoes ; at Brussels, one returns fifteen vibrations ; at 
Naples, one gives back fifty-six. Speaking and hearing 
trumpets, JEolian harps, and the statue of Memnon, may 
likewise be mentioned. 

In connection with sound, bells have always been objects 
of interest. The largest bell in the world is supposed to be 
that of Moscow, and is said to weigh 432,000 lbs. Its height 

A 3 


6 


ACOUSTICS—PNEUMATICS. 


is nineteen feet, its diameter at the mouth, twenty-two feet, 
and its greatest thickness, twenty-three inches. It was cast 
in 1653, in the reign of the Empress Ann; and the female 
figure represented on it, is said to be intended for her; but 
the greater probability is, that it was designed for the Holy 
Virgin. Bells have been cast of an enormous weight in 
China, seven *at Pekin weigh 120,000 lbs. each; compared 
with those mentioned above, most of the others in Europe 
sink into insignificance. 


WEIGHTS OF THE GREATEST CHURCH BELLS. 


Empress Ann, Moscow, lbs. 432,000 
St. Ivan’s, Moscow . 142,000 

Great Bell, Pekin . . 120,000 

Novogorod, Russia . 70,000 

Vienna—cast from Turkish 
cannon . . . 40,200 

Amboin’s Bell, Rouen . 40,000 

Erfurt, Saxony . . 30,800 

Cologne, Germany. . 25,000 

Verdun, France . . 24,000 

Exeter Cathedral . . 17,472 


Great Tom of Oxford, lbs. 17,360 


Antwerp Cathedral . 16,000 

St. Paul’s, London . . 11,470 

Ghent Cathedral . . 11,000 

Great Tom of Lincoln . 10,854 

Canterbury Cathedral . 7,840 

York Cathedral . . 6,384 

Gloucester Cathedral . 6,000 

Bow Bell, London . . 5,800 

Beverley, Yorkshire . 5,600 

Spitalfields, London . 4,400 


PNEUMATICS 

Treats of the mechanical properties of all aeriform fluids, em¬ 
bracing their weight, density, elasticity, and compressibility. 

Air is the most important phenomenon of the universe ; it 
is a subtle and elastic fluid surrounding our globe ; the word 
is derived from the Greek, and signifies to suck up ; gas (from 
the German gheist) has the same meaning. Air was formerly 
supposed to be a simple element, but it is now known to be 
composed of two gases, oxygen and azote, the proportion of 
the former being about twenty-one per cent. 

• Air extends a considerable distance above the earth ; this, 
with the clouds and vapours which float in it, is called the 
atmosphere. It is necessary to animal and vegetable life ; 
its highest extent is unknown, but rays of solar heat do not 
reflect above 45 miles. I. It is invisible, because perfectly 
transparent. II. Air is 800 times lighter than water, and 
can be compressed into a less space than it naturally occupies. 
III. The elastic spring of the air is equal to the compressing 
force. IV. The elasticity of air is increased by heat. V. 
The pressure of the air varies at different altitudes. VI. Air 
presses equally in all directions. 

Air in motion constitutes wind, which is a current of air 
varying in force according to its velocity. Many instruments 
are used in connection with this science, among which may 




PNEUMATICS—HYDROLOGY. 


7 


be mentioned the following :— I. The barometer, from the 
Greek baros , weight, and tnetron, measure j it weighs the 
atmosphere, and determines its variations. II. The thermo¬ 
meter, which ascertains the temperature of the atmosphere. 
III. The hydrometer ; it ascertains the degree of moisture in 
the air. IY. The air-pump, which exhausts the air from 
glasses prepared for scientific observation. Y. The diving- 
bell, which is of metal, with benches on w T hich persons may 
lie ; the enclosed air excludes the water, and supplies of it 
are let down through small leathern tubes, while the foul air 
escapes by a small pipe. 


Comparison of the Fahrenheit, Centigrade, and Reaumur 

Thermometers. 


Fahrenheit. 

Centisrrade. 

Reaumur. 

Fahrenheit. Centigrade. 

Reaumur. 

212 water boils 

loo- 

. 80- 

60 water boils 

15-55 . 

. 12-44 

200 



93-33 . 

. 74-66 

50 

io- 

. 8- 

ISO 



82-22 . 

. 65-77 

40 

4-44 . 

. 3-55 

160 



71-11 . 

. 56"88 

32 water freezes 

o- 

. o- 

140 



60- 

. 48- 

20 

6-66 . 

. 5-33 

120 



4S-88 . 

. 39-11 

10 

12-22 . 

• 9-77 

100 



3777 • 

. 30-22 

0 

17-77 • 

. 14.22 

80 



26-66 . 

. 21-33 




HYDROLOGY 

Is a term derived from two Greek words, signifying water 
and a discourse; and it purposes to treat of that branch of 
natural philosophy connected with fluids. 

It is usually divided into two branches: the first is called 
Hydrostatics , and treats of the nature, gravity, pressure, and 
motion of fluids, and of the methods of weighing solids 
therein. Fluids are either non-elastic and incompressible, 
as water, oil, mercury, &c. ; or elastic and compressible, as 
air, steam, and the different gases. The supposed cause of 
fluidity, is heat or motion. 

Ice without heat is a solid; with heat it becomes a fluid in 
water, and with more heat an expansive fluid in steam. In 
the first state the atoms are fixed in crystals; in the second 
are thrown into intestine motion ; and in the third are forced 
asunder with an amazing expansive force. The hydrostatic 
paradox is, that any quantity of fluid, however small, may be 
made to counterpoise any quantity, however large. 

Specific Gravities .—By this is Attended the relative weight 
of equal bulk of different bodies. The method of ascer¬ 
taining specific gravities was discovered by Archimedes, the 
Syracusian ; he perceived that in bathing the water rose in 
proportion to the bulk ; he instantly saw that any other 
substance of equal size would have raised the water equally 








8 


HYDROLOGY. 


as much, though one of less bulk and equal weight would not. 
The specific gravities of all bodies that sink in water may bo 
found by weighing the body first in air, then in water, and 
dividing its weight in air by the loss of the weight in water. 

Hydraulics , which is the second branch of hydrology, 
teaches how to estimate the velocity and force of fluids in 
motion. All the machines worked by water are constructed 
upon the principles taught by this science. 

Water can be set in motion only by its own gravity, as 
when it is allowed to descend from a higher to a lower level j 
by increasing or removing the pressure of the atmosphere 
it will rise above its natural level. Fluids may be conveyed 
over hills and valleys in bent pipes, to any height not greater 
than the level of their spring. 

All water finds its own level. While the ancients formed 
vast aqueducts to convey water across valleys ; the moderns 
effect the same purposes by wooden, leaden, iron, or stone 
pipes. The construction of fountains, the common pump, 
&c., is, generally speaking, well understood. 

The steam engine is an hydraulical machine: it consists of 
a large cylinder or barrel, fitted with a solid piston, like tho 
forcing pump ; steam is supplied from a large boiler, which, 
forcing up the piston, produces effects of the greatest impor¬ 
tance, communicating to the other machinery the power of 
from 2 to 100 or 200 horses. 


Oceans. 
Atlantic 
Antarctic . 
Arctic . 

Pacific . . 

Indian . . 

Mediterranean. 
Caspian Sea . 
Black Sea . . 

Baltic . 


The ocean, with all its inland hays and 
seas, covers an area of nearly 147,800,000 
square miles, or about three-fourths of the 
surface of the globe. Supposing its mean 
depth to be about 2 miles, its cubic con¬ 
tents will be nearly 300,000,000 cubic 
miles. 


IKES. 

Square Miles. 

Superior . 

. . 40,000 

Huron . 

25,000 

Michigan . 

. 25,000 

Erie 

11,000 

Ontario 

. . 10,000 

Ladoga . 

6,330 

Onegha 

. . 3,280 

Wener . 

2,136 

Geneva . 

. . 336 

Constance 

290 

Garda 

180 

Maggiore 

150 

Neufchatel 

115 

Lucerne. 

100 


Area of Oceans and Lakes, 

Square Miles. 

25,000,000 
30,000,000 
8,400 
50,000,000 
17,000,000 
1,006,000 
160,000 
350,000 
175,000 


OPTICS. 

The term is derived from the Greek, and signifies seeing ; 
it treats of that branch of natural philosophy connected with 
the phenomena of light and vision. 








OPTICS. 


The first point in relation to this science, is thoroughly to 
understand the nature and laws of light. Light is the un¬ 
dulation of atoms, or of a medium of various atoms in space, 
like those of water when a stone is thrown into it. The colours 
arise from the varied length or width between the undulating 
and diverging circles. Young and Newton have measured the 
rays, and determined that in red rays there are 37,640 in an 
inch, and 450,000,000,000 fluctuations in a second; in green 
rays there are 46,460 in an inch, and 577,000,000,000 in a 
second; in violet 59,750 in an inch, and 727,000,000,000 in 
a second. It requires twelve successions of light to fall on 
the eye in a second, to produce a constant perception of the 
object w 7 hence the rays or pulsations proceed. 

Any body which affords a ready passage for light is called 
a transparent or diaphanous medium, as air, glass, water, &c.; 
bodies which do not allow the passage of light through them, 
are called opaque, as stone, wood, &c. A ray or pencil of light 
is an exceedingly small portion of light from a luminous body ; 
a beam of light is a body of parallel rays. Rays which sepa¬ 
rate as they proceed from a point are called diverging rays ; 
those which tend to a common point are called converging. 

Every visible body emits particles of light, or reflects 
visible lines from its surface in all directions, which, passing 
without obstruction, move within the same medium in right 
lines. The rays or vibrations of light have great velocity; 
the flash of a gun is seen a considerable time before the report 
is heard ; the same may be observed of lightning. This science 
is generally divided into three parts:—I. Catoprics treat of 
the reflection of light from plane or spherical surfaces, and 
the phenomena of the formation of images. II. Dioptrics 
consider the different refractions of light in passing through 
its various mediums. III. Physical optics treat of light in 
relation to the organs of vision. The eye is the most 
complicated piece of machinery in the human frame ; it is 
composed of three coats covering each other, and enclosing 
substances called humours. These coats are the sclerotica, 
the choroides, and the retina; the humours are the aqueous, 
the crystalline, and the vitreous. 

Objects are seen in consequence of their images being 
painted upon the retina or nerves at the back of the eye ; and 
though the images thus painted are inverted, they are seen 
erect by the habit of the mind. The rainbow is a beautiful 
phenomenon seen in the part of the heavens opposite to the 


10 


OPTI03—ASTRONOMY. 


sun, and is caused by the refraction and reflection of its 
rays on the falling drops of rain. The powers of the telescope 
and the microscope aro of a wonderful character; of the 
effects of the latter tho crystallizations of snow magnified 
may be instanced as an example. By this instrument the 
human hair has been discovered t<* be a small tube through 
which blood is constantly circulating; it has likewise given 
rise to some curious observations relative to the crystallization 
of salt. 

ASTRONOMY 

Derives its name from two Greek words, astron t a star, and 
nomos , a rule ; by its principles we become acquainted with 
tho motions of the heavenly bodies, their magnitudes and 
distances. That which ought first to arrest the attention in 
connexion with this science, is the solar system, because tho 
earth on which we live forms a part of it; it comprises tho 
sun Q, which is the centre of attraction around which tho 
following seven primary planetary bodies revolve: Mercury $ 
Venus 9 , the Earth 0, Mars Jupiter 1/, Saturn Ip, and 
Herschell Ijl. There are likewiso five asteroids, or minor 
planets: Ceres Pallas $, Juno Vesta &, and Nep¬ 
tune y. 

There are eighteen secondary planets : the earth’s moon, 
Jupiter’s four satellites, Saturn’s seven, and six belonging to 
Herschell, as well as a considerable number of comets. 

The sun is a million times larger than our earth, therefore 
the balance of the motion of the sun and planets would not 
be destroyed if one million of earths moved round the sun. 
The stars which may be observed twinkling on a bright 
evening, do not belong to our system ; the distance of the 
nearest is 32,000,000,000 of miles, and they are doubtless as 
far from each other. 

In order to find and describe the stars, the ancients classed 
them into figures of men and beasts, and called them constel¬ 
lations, to winch tho moderns have added twenty-four. In 
the Zodiac, or that part of the heavens where the sun appears 
to make his annual tour, there are twelve signs, viz.: Aries, 
tho ram, Y'; Taurus, the bull, £5 5 Gemini, the twins, n ; 
Cancer, tho crab, ; Eeo, the lion, Q ; Virgo, the virgin, Tfl?; 
Libra, the balance, ; Scorpio, the scorpion, J1\; Sagittarius, 
the archer, f ; Capricorn, the goat, V? j Aquarius, the 
water-bearer ££ ; Pisces, the fishes, X. The memory will be 
materially assisted by remembering the lines by Dr. Watts— 


A3TB0N0MY. 


11 


The Ram, tho Bull, the Heavenly Tu rns, 

And next tho Crab, the Lion shines. 

The Virgin and the Scales ; 

The Archer, Scorpion, and Sea Ooat, 

The Man that holds the Water-pot, 

The Fish with glittering tails. 

The most brilliant of all the constellations is Orion, dis¬ 
tinguished by his belt of three stars in a row ; beneath which 
is Sirius, the brightest of the stars ; and above to the right 
are, the red star of the bull, and the Pleiades or seven stars, 
and to the left two stars, Castor and Pollux. These constel¬ 
lations are always visible on a bright winter evening. 

The fixed stars seen at any one time by the naked eye do not 
exceed 1000; but the telescope reveals many millions. 

The swiftest motion with which we are acquainted is that 
of light, which travels at the rate of twelve millions of miles 
a minute, and yet light would be three years in passing from 
the nearest fixed star to the earth. A cannon ball, which 
may be made to move at the rate of twenty miles a minute, 
would be one million eight hundred thousand years in travel¬ 
ling that distance. Sound, the velocity of which is thirteen 
miles a minute, would be more than two million seven 
hundred thousand years in passing from the nearest star to 
the earth. So that if it were possible that the inhabitants of 
the earth could see the light, to hear the sound, and receive 
the ball of a cannon discharged at the nearest fixed star, they 
would not perceive the light of its explosion for three years 
after it had been fired, nor receive the ball until one million 
eight hundred thousand years had elapsed, nor hear the 
report for two million seven hundred thousand years. 


Time occupied by Transmission op Light from the Planets, &c. 


Sun 

Jupiter 

Uranus 


II 

99 

99 


ht comes to the Earth in 14 seconds. 

99 99 

99 

8 

minutes. 

99 

99 

52 

99 

99 99 

99 

2 

hours. 

First magnitude, 3 to 

12 

years. 

Second „ 

99 

20 

99 

Third ,, 

)) 

80 

99 

Fourth „ 

99 

45 

99 

Fifth „ 

99 

66 

99 

Sixth „ 

99 

96 

99 

Seventh „ 

99 

180 

99 

Twelfth 

99 

4,000 

99 


Tn the Philosophical Transactions for 1800, is a paper by the late 
Sir Win. Herschell, “ Upon the power of Telescopes to penetrate into 
Space.” In it he says, that the light from the brilliant nebulae seen by 
him at that time by means of his powerful telescope, cannot have been 
less than one million and nine hundred thousand years in its progress. 

The velocity of light is 192,000 miles in a second of time. 





12 


ASTRONOMY—METEOROLOGY. 


PROPORTIONS OF PLANETS TO THE SUN, THAT OF THE 
EARTH BEING UNITY. 



Volume. 

Mass. 

Equilateral 

Diameter. 

Sun .. 

.. 1,395,324-4000 .. 

. 329,630 0000 .. 

.. 111454 

Jupiter 

1,280-9000 .. 

. 308-9400 .. 

10-860 

Saturn 

974-7800 .. 

. 93-2710 .. 

9-987 

Uranus 

81-2600 .. 

16-9000 .. 

4-332 

Earth 

1 0000 .. 

1-0000 .. 

1-000 

V enus 

0-8828 .. 

0-9243 .. 

0-975 

Mars .. 

0-1386 .. 

0T294 .. 

0-517 

Mercury 

0 0565 .. 

0 1627 .. 

0-398 

Neptune 

30-2026 .. . 

• • • 



DISTANCE OF PLANETS FROM THE SUN. 

Planet. 

Miles. 

Planet. 

Miles. 

Mercury 
Venus.. 

. 36,791,000 

Ceres , T . 

263,011,600 

. 68,748^000 

Pallas . 

263,547,000 

Earth .. 


Jupiter . 

494,494,000 

Mars .. 


Saturn . 

906,607,000 

Vesta .. 

. 225,052,000 

Uranus . 

1,823,178,000 

Juno .. 


Neptune. 

2,851,320,000 


DIMENSIONS AND ELIPTICITY OF OUR EARTH. 

Feet. Miles. 

Equatorial diameter . 41,843,330 . 7924 873 

Polar diameter. 41,704,788 7898-634 

Difference of diameters. 138,542 26-239 

Ratio of diameters . 103,026 

Circumference at the Equator. .... 24,897 miles. 

METEOROLOGY. 

This branch of science exemplifies the principles of natural 
philosophy, in explaining the various appearances of the 
atmosphere, as the clouds, winds, rain, hail, snow, &c. &c. 
Evaporation combined with electricity produces all the pheno¬ 
mena of vapour, fog, clouds, rain, and according as these two 
are joined to certain degrees of heat or cold, they produce 
hoar-frost, rain, hail, and snow. Clouds are dense masses of 
vapour in the atmosphere more or less opaque: when con¬ 
densed, the clouds fall in rain; there are several kinds of 
clouds ;—I. The cirrus , which is the brightest aerial: it is 
accompanied or followed by steady high winds. II. Cumulus , 
which is the cloud of the day-time ; it appears in dense and 
heavy masses formed in the lower atmosphere, and when they 
congregate and increase about sun-set, betokens thunder. 
III. The stratus , or cirro-stratus , is a widely extending hori¬ 
zontal sheet often touching the water or the earth: it is 
properly the cloud of night, and in the morning is converted 
into the cumulus. The nimbus , or rain cloud, is a horizontal 
sheet above which the cirrus spreads, and the cumulus enters 
its side and forms beneath, neither of the former appearing 
to rain by themselves. 





























METEOROLOGY. 


13 


Rain is caused by a cloud moving into a stratum of oold 
air, by which its particles are condensed, and run into drops 
too heavy to float in the atmosphere. Snow is produced by 
the cloud becoming frozen before its particles have collapsed 
into water. Sail is caused by the freezing of the drops after 
they begin to fall as rain. Dew is the falling of the vapours 
of the day when they part with the motion in the cool of the 
evening. A fog is a cloud floating on the surface of the 
earth, and a cloud is a fog floating in the atmosphere. 

Evaporation is the process which converts water into 
vapour lighter than the atmosphere, therefore raised above the 
earth’s surface, where, by partial condensation, it forms clouds. 
Exhalation is the dispersion of dry particles from a body. 

The great cause of all winds is the heat of the sun, which, 
during the diurnal rotation of the earth, passes over some 
parallel between the tropics from east to west every twenty- 
four hours ; this increased motion causes an expansion of the 
aerial gas, by which, becoming lighter, it ascends, and a 
current from surrounding parts rushes in to supply its place. 
But as expanded air affords greater vacuities between the 
moving atoms, so next adjoining atoms press into those void 
spaces, and hence every rarefaction necessarily creates a dis¬ 
turbance in its vicinity and around. The air, by the reflection 
of the solar rays and other causes (see Electricity), becomes 
in this disturbed state of electrical excitement; and by highly 
excited electricity are produced the phenomena of thunder, 
lightning, fire balls, ignes fatui, and aurora borealis. By the 
action of heat and electricity combined, are produced hurri¬ 
canes, whirlwinds, and waterspouts, although the mode in 
which they combine themselves is at present unknown. 


HEIGHT OF THE LINE OF CONGELATION AND MEAN 
TEMPERATURE AT DIFFERENT LATITUDES. 



Mean Tempt. 

Height of 

Lat. 

Mean Tempt. 

Height of 

Lat. 

at the Level 
of the Sea. 

Line of 
Congeltn. 

FEET. 

at the Level 
of the Sea. 

Line of 
Congeltn. 

FEET. 

0 

.... 84-2 .... 

15,207 

50 

.... 53'6 .... 

6,334 

5 

.... 83-8 .... 

15,095 

55 

.... 49'2 .... 

5,034 

10 

.... 82-6 .... 

14,764 

60 

.... 45-0 .... 

3,818 

15 

.... 80-7 .... 

14,220 

65 

.... 41-3 .... 

2,722 

20 

.... 78-1 .... 

13,478 

70 

.... 38-1 .... 

1,778 

25 

.... 74-9 .... 

12,557 

75 

.... 35-5 .... 

1,016 

30 

.... 711 .... 

11,484 

80 

.... 33-6 .... 

457 

35 

.... 67-0 .... 

10,287 

85 

.... 32-4 .... 

117 

40 

45 

.... 62-6 .... 

.... 581 .... 

9,001 

7,671 

90 

.... 32-0 .... 

0 


B 



















14 


METEOROLOGY—GEOLOGY. 


FORCE OF WIND ON A SQUARE FOOT, 


For different Heights of Column of 


Inches- 

10 

9 

8 

7 , 
6 
4 
3 
2 
1 

0-5 , 
0-1 
0-05 , 


Force of the Wind, 
in lbs- Avoird- 
... 52-08 \ 

... 46-87/ 

... 44-66 .... 
... 3655 .... 
... 31-75 .... 

... 26-04 .... 
... 20-83 .... 
... 10-42 .... 
... 5-21 .... 

... 2-60 .... 

... 0-52 .... 

,.. 0-26 _ 


JFater in Lind's Anemometer. 


Most violent hurricane. 

A very great hurricane. 
A great hurricane. 

A hurricane. 

A very great storm. 

A storm. 

A very high wind. 

A high wind. 

A brisk gale. 

A fresh breeze. 

A pleasant wind. 


GEOLOGY. 

This science, like most of the others we have enumerated 
and shall have to enumerate, derives its name from the Greek, 
ejea y the earth, logos, a discourse. No science of the present 
day excites such enthusiastic attention, and no one has so 
recent an origin; it investigates the nature of materials com¬ 
posing the earth’s crust, and the causes of the changes which 
are and have been constantly transpiring on its surface. 

The rocks are thus classified:—I. Primary, or Unstratified 
Pocks: they contain no remains of animal or vegetable life, 
and therefore it is supposed they were formed prior to their 
creation; they are extremely hard, and their substances are 
pure crystallized matter; they exist in large vertical masses, 
are more or less inclined to the horizon, and form the lowest 
part of the earth’s crust with which we are acquainted; the 
principal are as follows:—1. Granite. 2. Serpentine, so 
called from its resembling the skin of a serpent in the admix¬ 
ture of its colours. 3. Trappean, from a resemblance to steps 
and stairs. 4. Basalt, of which Fingal’s Cave in Staffa, and 
the Giant’s Causeway in Ireland, are the most remarkable 
specimens. With them may be mentioned the inferior strati¬ 
fied rocks. II. The transition, or lowest fossiliferous group ! 
It is supposed that these rocks were forming at the time when 
the earth was passing from a chaotic to a habitable state: 
they are less perfectly crystallized than the primary rocks, 
and contain similar organic deposits to the secondary. III. 
The secondary rocks. These always lie on the transition ; in 
this division are included the chalky formations ; the oolitic, 
or those formed of carbonate of lime mixed with other ingre- 

























GEOLOGY. 


15 


dients; tho red sandstone, and tho coal or oarboniferous 
series. IV. The tertiary or supercretacious. V. The diluvial 
deposits. VI. The alluvial or modern formations. 

The changes which transpire on the earth’s surface are as 
follow :—I. j Rivers carry down an immense quantity of mud, 
sand, &c., which accumulates at their mouths, and are called 
deltas, from their similarity to the Greek letter °f that 
name; in process of time sand will thus rise where the sea 
formerly flowed. II. The action of the sea on coasts: thus 
it is proved that considerable encroachments have been made 
on Venice, the island of Sheppey, and other places. III. Vol¬ 
canoes : they have not only buried cities in the earth, as 
Pompeii and Herculaneum, A.D. 79, but have thrown up 
islands in the midst of the sea, as that of Monte Nuovo, near 
Naples, which was thrown up in a day and a night in 1538. 
IV. Earthquakes: that of Lisbon, in 1755, was felt over 
nearly the whole of Europe: and the coast of Chili, in South 
America, near one hundred miles in length, was raised three 
or four feet in consequence of one. Some of the other prin¬ 
cipal causes of change are hurricanes, submarine forests, and 
coral islands. The science of geology exhibits a greater 
variety of wonders than any other. The remains of several 
extinct animals have been found of more than gigantic size ; 
amongst others, tho Ichthyosaurus, or Fish Lizard ; its eye 
is proved to have possessed the power of magnifying and 
diminishing; and some idea may be formed of its size, when 
we mention that some have been discovered whose eye was 
nineteen inches in circumference : the Megatherium was 
another gigantic animal, in height about seven feet, in length 
about seventeen. Coal mines, it is now satisfactorily proved, 
are the remains of widely extending forests ; and the diamond 
has been determined by Sir David Brewster to be a petrified 
flower. 

Sir John Herschell, in contrasting the sciences of geology and as¬ 
tronomy, says,—“ Like astronomy, the progress of geology depends on 
the continued accumulation of observations carried on for ages. But, 
unlike astronomy, the observations on which it depends, when the 
whole extent of the subject to be explained is taken into consideration, 
can hardly as yet be said to be more than commenced. Yet, to make 
up for this, there is one important difference, that, while in the latter 
science it is impossible to recall the past or anticipate the future, and 
observation is in consequence limited to a single fact in a single moment, 
in the former the records of the past are always present; they may be 
examined and re-examined as often as we please, and require nothing but 
diligence and judgment to put us in possession of their whole contents.” 


16 


PHYSIOLOGY. 

The term physiology is borrowed from two Greek words, 
and, literally rendered, signifies a discourse on nature : it is 
employed in our language, however, to signify the science 
which investigates the structure and organization of animated 
bodies ; it admits of several divisions, which will be taken up 
separately with any facts relating to the individuals composing 
these bodies:— 

I.—HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY. 

The anatomy of the human frame is divided into three 
parts: the head , comprehending its external and internal 
formations, the scalp, the features, and the brain : the trunks 
comprehending the spine, the thorax, and the abdomen; and 
the extremities , which are superior and inferior; the superior 
consisting of the shoulder, the arm, and the hand; and the 
inferior, of the hip, the thigh, the leg, and the foot. 

The bones are composed of the earthy matter of lime and 
of gelatine, or animal glue; the lime gives them hardness and 
solidity, the animal matter renders them pliant, and not so 
readily broken: their outer surface is smooth, firm, and com¬ 
pact, while the inside is spongy and porous, with numerous 
vessels running through them: some are hollow like pipes, 
by which their strength is increased, while the necessary 
lightness is preserved. The human body contains 248. The 
muscles are the instruments of motion; they are thick fleshy 
substances of a red colour, composed of numerous fibres or 
layers placed lengthwise, sometimes straight and sometimes 
oblique ; they are of an elastic nature, and contract or extend 
at the impulse of the will. The blood-vessels consist of the 
heart with its arteries and veins, which branch through the 
system, and convey the tide of life to every part. The blood : 
this is the chief of all the fluids in our body; it consists of a 
watery serum, fibrous particles, and red globules, which last 
are not a twelfth part of it. It is generated thus—the meat 
and drink, being digested into chyle, pass from the intestines 
through the lacteal vessels, and the thoracic duct into the left 
subclavian vein, and thence into the vena cava, where it mixes 
with the blood, and then circulates with it till it is wholly 
assimilated. 

Perhaps nothing connected with the human frame is more 
surprising than the pulsations of the heart: they average 
from 3000 and 4000 to 5000 an hour j according to Dr. He- 


PHYSIOLOGY. 


17 


berden, tlic heart of an infant in the first days of its existence, 
and when sleeping tranquilly, performs about 140 pulsations 
a minute; the first year, 124; the second, 110; third and 
fourth 96 ; seventh and following, 86 ; time of puberty, 80; 
manhood, 75 ; sixtieth year, 65 ; beyond which time the va¬ 
riations are very great. 

The organs of sensation are the optic, or the eye, by which 
objects are made visible ; the acoustic, or the ear, by which 
we perceive the elastic tremors or impressions of the air; the 
olfactory, by which we are admonished of what is palatable 
or unpalatable, when probably our other organs might not be 
sufficiently strong to receive the necessary impression; palate, 
by which we discriminate tastes which are pleasant or unplea¬ 
sant. There are other organs of common sensation—the 
touch, the voice, the locomotive organs, &c. 

Pathology is generally considered as a branch of the study 
of human physiology; it treats of the origin and cure of 
diseases: there can be no doubt that most of the diseases 
current amongst us arise from three causes—sitting up late at 
night, the use of intoxicating liquors, and the want of exer¬ 
cise ; a proper attention to these points would operate better 
on the human frame than much medicine. 


Caucasians. 


Mongolians. 


Ethiopics. . 
Americans. 


CLASSIFICATION OF MANKIND, 

According to Bluytcnbach. 

' Europeans (excepting Fins and Laplanders), Western 
Asiatics as far as the Ganges, the Turks and Tar¬ 
tars, properly so called, the tribes of Caucasus, the 
J Armenians, Persians, Affghans, and Hindoos; the 
| Africans who live on the shores of the Mediterranean 

and throughout the Sahara, the Egyptians and 
Copts, the Abyssinians and the Gaunches, or ancient 
people of the Canary Islands. 

{ Central, North Eastern, Eastern and South Eastern 
Asiatics, Chinese, Japanese, Indo-Chinese, Fins, 
Laplanders, and Esquimaux. 

{ Africans to the south of Sahara and Abyssinia, 
Australasians, Tasmanians, New Guineans, New 
Britons, and various tribes throughout the Indian 
Archipelago. 

; All American native Tribes and Nations. 


Malays . 


r Islands of the Pacific Ocean, and the dominant Nations 
l of the Indian Archipelago. 


CLASSIFICATION OF MANKIND, 

According to their Languages. 

The researches made by Balbi for the construction of his Atlas Eth- 
nographique, have led him to set down the number of known languages 

B 3 



18 


PHYSIOLOGY. 


as 2000 at lea6t; but the imperfect state of ethnography, he states, has 
allowed him to class only 860 languages, and about 5000 dialects ; of 
which number, 143 languages belong to Asia, 53 to Europe, 115 to 
Africa, 117 to Oceanica, and 422 to America. 

CLASSIFICATION OF MANKIND, 

According to their Religions. 

Christianity in all its branches - 
Judaism ------ 

Islam ------ 

Brahmanism ------ 

Bhuddism ------ 

Other Religions - - - - - 

Total 

WEIGHT OF THE HUMAN BODY. 

The average weight of an adult man, aged 40, according to M. Quetelet, 
is 140lbs. 602. The skeleton generally consists of 240 bones, and weighs 
about 14 lbs. The height of a man when alive being 5 ft. 8 inches, the 
skeleton will be about 5 feet 7 inches. The average weight of the brain 
of a man is 3^ lbs.; that of a woman, 2 lbs. 11 oz. 

An ordinary-sized man consumes about 46,000 cubic inches of oxygen 
per day. The average number of respirations are 20 per minute, or 2 for 
every arterial pulsation. 

II.—ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY. 

This is a wide field of investigation: we must take every 
part of it separately : 

I. Zoology is that branch of science which describes the 
habits and organization of the mammalia tribe of animals; 
this division includes all those animals which suckle their 
young, and have warm red blood flowing in their arteries. 
They have blood, for life ; bones , for strength ; muscles , for 
motion; and nerves , for sensation. 

The classification of the mammalia is as follows: that of 
Baron Cuvier is adopted in preference to that of Linnaeus, the 
latter seeming forced and arbitrary:—I. JBimana , or two- 
handed animals, of which man is the only instance. II. Quad- 
rimana , or four-handed animals, as monkeys, apes, baboons. 
III. Carnassier , feeders wholly or chiefly upon animal sub¬ 
stances, such as bats, bears, foxes, dog3, &c. IY. Hoden- 
tia , those which have the mouth formed for gnawing, and 
subsist chiefly upon vegetable matter ; hares, rats, moles, 
beavers, belong to this tribe. Y. Edentata , animals in which 
the teeth are wanting, among which are the sloth, the arma- 
dilloes. YI. The Fachydermata , or thick-skinned animals ; 
as the rhinoceros, the elephant, the common swine, &c. 
YII. Euminantia , or animals which chew the cud; the goat, 
the antelope, the cow, the camel, are among the animals of 


396 , 000,000 

5 , 000,000 

96 , 000,000 

80 , 000,000 

230 , 000,000 

153 , 000,000 

1,020,000,000 



PHYSIOLOGY. 


19 


this tribe. VIII. The Cetacea , or the whale and dolphin tribe. 

The elephant genera stands at the head of quadrupeds: 
their size and docility have made them the admiration of man¬ 
kind ; in their wild state they live in societies, feeding entirely 
on vegetables, and never attacking other animals unless pro¬ 
voked by violence ; the power of its instinctive sagacity has 
excited great astonishment. The peculiar mechanism of its 
trunk is in the highest degree remarkable; it is the organ of 
breathing ; with it the elephant procures his food and con¬ 
veys it to his mouth; by this instrument he drinks, first 
sucking up the water and then pouring it into his mouth. 
It is composed of a vast number of flexible rings, terminating 
with a fleshy moveable hook, which enables him to seize what¬ 
ever he desires, and so wonderful is it, that with it he can 
either destroy a tree, or pick up the smallest pin. 

The camel has been styled the ship of the desert, and in 
the East it is a most valuable servant; these wonderful ani¬ 
mals can perform a journey of several days without eating or 
drinking, their stomachs contain a reservoir of fresh water, 
and they have sometimes been killed and opened to yield the 
perishing traveller this supply; they kneel down to receive 
their load, and carry from five to fifteen hundred pounds, tra¬ 
velling fifteen hours a day j the foot of the camel is wonder¬ 
fully adapted for travelling over sandy deserts. 

What the camel is to the Arabian, the rein-deer is to the 
Laplander. This animal travels thirty miles without halting ; 
its flesh and milk supply its master with food; its sinews, 
thread and cordage; its bones are converted into glue; almost 
every part of the animal is useful, although those only can 
appreciate him who know by experience his value. 

II. Ornithology. —The study of this science, which in¬ 
quires into the habits of the feathered tribe, may be pursued 
in reference to their various orders, which are six:—I. Acci- 
jpitres , or birds of prey: they are the most powerful of all 
birds, and their habits agree with their structure, as they all, 
in a state of nature, live upon animal food, and the greater 
number of them kill the prey which they eat. Birds of prey 
are divided into two sections or families, according to their 
times of feeding; the first, or diurnal family, is composed of 
falcons, hawks, vultures, eagles ; the eagles exceed all others 
in size and strength, and generally fly very high. The second 
section is the nocturnal, and the families composing it are 
known by the general name of owls ; they fly abroad chiefly 


20 


PHYSIOLOGY. 


in the twilight, and they are remarkable for the fine extremi¬ 
ties of their feathers, in consequence of which, they fly almost 
without making any noise. II. Passerines , or birds resemb¬ 
ling sparrows, a very numerous order, and including a great 
variety of character; thrushes, fly-catclicrs, swallows, larks, 
&c., belong to it. III. Scansorice, climbling birds ; they have 
the foot remarkably formed for climbing; wood-peckers, tou¬ 
cans, cuckoos, parrots, macaws, and parroquets, are examples 
of this order. IY. Qallinice , poultry birds ; in this order 
are comprised the domesticated fowls, poultry, peacocks, tur¬ 
keys, guinea fowls, and partridges, &c. Y. Echissiers, still 
birds, or waders; the birds belonging to this order are not 
all water birds, but many live by the banks of rivers and feed 
upon reptiles ; others are to be found on the arid deserts of 
the East; they may be distinguished by the nakedness of their 
legs. YI. Palmipedes, web-footed, or swimming birds ; the 
duck, goose, swan, penguin, guillemots, belong to this order. 

No branch of natural history supplies so many singular and 
interesting anecdotes as ornithology. The boldness and ra¬ 
pacity of birds of prey when urged by hunger has been noticed 
frequently. Markwick, the naturalist, says, “ When shooting 
in the winter in company with two friends, a woodcock flew 
across us closely pursued by a small hawk; we all three fired 
at the woodcock instead of the hawk, which, notwithstanding 
the report of three guns close to it, continued its pursuit of 
the woodcock, struck it down, and carried it off, as we after¬ 
wards discovered.” 

III. Ichthyology. —The science which inquires into the 
habits and character of fishes is thus designated. There is a 
very popular mistake in supposing that a fish is any animal 
living in the water: oysters and crabs are called “shell fish,” 
though neither of them is a fish, the oyster being of the 
molluscous tribe, and the crab crustaceous. 

A fish is an animal having a back bone, and a brain in the 
head, more or less of a spindle shape, and breathing water by 
means of gills. Eishes are divided by Linnaeus into five 
orders, namely:—I. The apodal, those which have no ventral 
fins; of these the eel will readily occur as an instance. II. 
Jugular, those which have the ventral fins situated more 
forward than the pectoral: the perch, the mullet, the margo, 
are specimens of this division. III. Abdominal, or those 
which have the ventral fins situated behind; this is by far 
the most numerous family of the fishes; the carp, pike, 


PHYSIOLOGY. 


21 


salmon, and herring, each a separate division of the order, 
belong to it. IV. Thoracic , those which have the ventral 
fins situated immediately under the pectoral: all flat fish, 
and the cod family will be found in this division. V. Car¬ 
tilaginous , which have a cartilaginous instead of a bony 
skeleton; amongst the numbers which compose this division, 
are sturgeons, sharks, skates, and rays. 

The fertility of fishes has excited astonishment, the table 
extracted from the Philosophical Transactions will give some 
idea of the relative fertility of oviparous fishes :— 


Fishes- 

Weight. 

Weight of Roe- 

No. of Eggs. 

Date. 

Carp 

o». dr- 

25 5 

2,571 

263,109 

April 4 

Codfish 

90 

0 

12,540 

3,686,760 

Dec. 2 

Flounder 

24 

4 

2,200 

1,357,400 

March 14 

Herring . 

5 10 

480 

36,960 

October 25 

Mackerel 

18 

0 

1,223 

765 

546,681 

June 18 

Perch 

8 

9 

28,323 

April 5 

Pike 

56 

4 

5,100 

49,304 

April 25 

Roach 

10 

6£ 

361 

81,586 

May 2 

Smelt . . 

2 

0 

149 

38,278 

March 21 

Sole . 

14 

8 

5,442 

100,362 

June 13 

Tench . 

40 

0 


383,252 

May 28 

Lobster 

0 

0 

1,671 

21,699 


The salmon is said to be even more productive than any of these, one 
having been found with nearly 10,000,000 eggs. 


IV. Malacozoology. —This term is now applied to that 
branch of the study of natural history which treats of the 
Mollusca, or Mollusses, which are an order of animals in the 
Linnsean system, comprehending the slug, the snail, &c.; in 
short, it professes to treat of all testaceous or soft animals : 
it is compounded of three Greek words; and although we 
have adopted the proper orthography, it is very seldom used; 
the word Malacology, an abbreviation, being substituted for 
it. It includes all invertebrated animals, which have their 
muscular system supported by external hard parts, and do 
not possess an internal skeleton, or any articulated portions. 
Their classification is as follows :— 

Class I. Cephalopoda , those which have the head, and what 
may be termed the feet, closely united in respect to position. 
A very curious member of this class is the Nautilus ; the shell 
is the most beautiful that can well be imagined. The Hindoos 
pay it divine honours, believing the gods to have stamped 
their image upon it: it rides on the water like a boat; and 
many suppose that the idea of navigation was borrowed from 










22 


PHYSIOLOGY. 


this singular animal: there is, however, much mystery 
attaching to it, and the real owner of the shell has never yet 
been seen within it. II. Pteropoda> or winged feet: they 
are a tribe very small in size and not numerous, but abounding 
in the northern seas; they form the principal food of the 
Greenland whale, into whose mouth they pass by shoals. 
III. Gasteropoda: the general character of this class is that 
of the power of adhesion, either simply by its surface or by 
slimy matter, W'hich it secretes: this power lies in a thick 
fleshy disc; it is placed upon the belly, and from hence it 
derives its name of “ belly foot.” The animals of this class 
are very numerous, and are to be met with in all parts of the 
world. IY. Acephala , headless animals. In these animals 
the mouth is always under the cloak or shell, and always 
without teeth, so that they can only feed upon such particles 
of matter as the water brings within their reach : they are 
quite incapable of wandering from place to place in search of 
food, or for any other purpose: amongst the animals of this 
class we may mention the oyster, the muscle, the cockle, &c. 
V. Branchiopoda : these animals derive their name from two 
arms, which extend from the body between the folds of the 
cloak, and which are capable of being coiled up and with¬ 
drawn ; they are not a numerous race at present, but appear 
to have been so at e former periods of the world’s history, 
being found in vast numbers in the secondary strata of rocks 
in England, and many other countries. YI. Cirropoda ; 
the construction of these animals is very singular : they seem 
to be in fact a connecting link between the mollusca and 
articulated animals, though they certainly belong to the 
former. The most singular is that animal known by the 
name of the barnacle; it attaches itself to the bottoms of 
ships, the under sides of floating timber, and even to the 
skins of marine animals : sometimes the bottom of a vessel is 
covered with a crop of them, more than a foot in length, by 
which its progress through the water is materially diminished. 

The heads and tails of snails w ill grow again; young snails 
come forth with their shells on their backs, and the shells 
are enlarged with the animals, by means of a secretion for 
that purpose, by which also they repair the shells when 
broken. The shell so effectually preserves them, that they 
have revived in water, after being kept dry in a box for 
twenty years, and after being immersed in boiling water. The 
polype does not properly belong to this class : it is an insect 


PHYSIOLOGY. 


23 


of a snail or jelly-like substanoe ; the young issue from its 
side in a surprising manner ; but it is the wonderful property 
of this insect that if cut into any number of pieces, and in 
any direction, each part will become a perfect polype : it may 
be turned inside out without injury, and the dismembered 
parts of one polype will unite with those of another, and 
make one perfect polype. 

Some naturalists consider Conchology , or the study of 
shells, a part of the study of Malacology , and others make it 
a distinct branch of natural history—perhaps both are right: 
it is generally divided as follows:—I. Multivalves, which 
consist of many plates or shells, connected in some species 
like different parts of a coat of mail. II. Bivalves , consisting 
of two shells connected by a hinge, as the mussel and 
oyster, &c. III. Univalves, comprehending those that have 
a regular spiral: this is a very numerous division, including 
the periwinkle, and those also without a regular spiral. 

V. Entomology. —This is the division of natural history 
devoted to the study of Insects : its etymology is Greek, 
from entomon, an insect, and logos, a discourse : the word 
insect is derived from the Latin insecta, signifying a cutting 
or dividing; it gives their leading characteristic, namely, 
their evident division in the middle of the body : the classi¬ 
fication of Linnaeus is considered the least complex ; he has 
arranged them, according to their wings, as follows:—I. 
Coleoptera, such as have cases that cover the wings—as the 
beetle tribe. II. Hemiptera, half-winged insects—as the 
cock-roach, locusts, grasshopper, bug, &c. III. Lepidoptera , 
scaly-winged insects—as the butterfly, and the moth, &c. 
IY. Neuroptera, nerve-winged or fibre-winged insects; their 
wings are furnished with conspicuous nerves, ribs, or ramifi¬ 
cations—as the dragon-fly, may-fly, trout-fly. Y. Hymen- 
optera, insects with four wings—as the bee, wasp, hornet, 
termes or white ant. YI. JDiptera, two-winged insects—as 
the gnat, common fly, musquito, &c. YII. Aptera, insects 
without wings—as the flea. 

After man has exerted the power of his eyes to view the 
smallest insects, he will find, on applying a microscope, 
others so small that ten thousand of them are not equal in 
bulk to the smallest which he can view with his naked eye. 
Leucnhoek tells us of insects seen with the naked eye, of 
which twenty-seven millions would only be equal to a mite, 
and four millions to a single grain of sand ; yet each of these 



24 


PHYSIOLOGY. 


small beings has an organized body, provided with a heart, 
lungs, muscles, glands, arteries, and veins, and with blood 
and other fluids passing through them. There are some, 
indeed, so inconceivably small, that millions may be suspended 
on the point of a needle. A small particle of water is found 
to contain a little world of animated beings. What then 
must be the number inhabiting the vast expanse of ocean: 
each leaf of a tree is a colony of insects, and every plant or 
flower affords food for millions of creatures. The web of a 
spider, also, is so inconceivably fine, that thousands would 
scarcely be as thick as a thread of common sewing silk. 

III.—VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. 

Vegetable physiology is the study of the history, classifi¬ 
cation, and construction of plants ; and by philosophers is 
described as that branch of nature which grows and lives, 
but possesses no sensation. Every plant consists of a root, 
buds, a trunk or stem, of leaves, of props or arms, of the 
inflorescence, and the parts of fructification. Plants are 
divided into trees, shrubs, herbs, which last die in winter. 

Botanists have divided all plants into twenty-four classes 
and 121 orders ; and they have discovered 3000 genera, 
50,000 species, and varieties of the species without number. 
With regard to the roots, plants are bulbous, as in onions 
and tulips; tuberose, as in turnips or potatoes ; and fibrous, 
as in grasses. They are deciduous when their leaves fall in 
autumn; and evergreen when they are constantly renewed, 
as in most resinous trees. They are said to sleep when they 
change the appearance of the leaves or flowers at night. 
They are indigenous, or native; and exotic, or foreign. 

Blowers, although apparently so diversified consist but of 
eight parts. The pistil in the centre of the flower ; the stamen , 
exterior to this—both being extensions of the pith and of the 
wood ; the pistil is discriminated by a woollen base, which is 
the seed vessel ; the stamen contains coloured farina or 
pollen; when the stamens and pistils are found together, 
the flower is called bisexual; when separate in different 
flowers, the flower is called unisexual. The other parts of 
the flower are the corolla , an expansion of the bark; and the 
calyx , an expansion of the rind. The nectary is the place 
where the honey is secreted ; the pericarp is the germen 
enlarged, filled with mature seeds ; the seeds are the rudi¬ 
ments of the new plants ; and the receptacle is the basis upon 
which the other parts rest. 


PIIYSIOLOGY—DENDROLOGY. 


25 


The chemical or elementary principles of vegetables are car¬ 
bon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen.—According to Humboldt, 
there are 38,500 vegetable species, viz., 6500 in Asia, 7000 in 
Europe, 3000 in Africa, 5000 in Oceanica, 17,000 in America. 

DENDROLOGY 

Is the study of trees, and is an interesting branch of vegetable 
physiology. Of European trees, the Oat has long been 
acknowledged the monarch of the woods. The Framlingham 
Oak (Suffolk), used in the construction of the Royal Sove¬ 
reign, was four feet nine inches square, and yielded four 
square beams, each forty-four feet in length. The Boddington 
Oak, in the vale of Gloucester, was fifty-four feet in circum¬ 
ference at the base. The largest of which w r e have any 
record was Damory’s Oak in Dorsetshire: its circumference 
was sixty-eight feet, with a cavity of twenty feet high, which 
was used about the time of the Commonwealth as an ale-house 
for the entertainment of travellers. The dreadful storm in 
the reign of Queen Ann shattered this majestic tree, and in 
1755 the vestiges of it were sold for fire-w ood. 

Some oaks are celebrated for their historical associations. 
Not an 100 years since the oak was standing against which 
the arrow is said to have glanced which killed William 
Rufus, and a monument was erected to indicate the spot: at 
Torwood, in Stirlingshire, the oak existed a short time since 
beneath whose branches William Wallace convened his 
followers, and represented to them the necessity of delivering 
their country from the thraldom of Edward. 

The teak tree is the lord of the Birman forest, and before 
it the oak sinks into insignificance; it generally rises from 
160 to 200 feet; the circumference is eight or nine yards, and 
its leaves twenty inches long and nineteen broad. Continual 
verdure, grace and majesty of form, height and amplitude of 
growth, are the distinguishing characteristics of this tree. 

The banian tree is the most beautiful of nature’s pro¬ 
ductions in the tropical climates : every branch from the 
main body throws out its roots, which grow thicker until 
they reach the surface of the ground, when, there striking in, 
they become parent roots to other trees, which spread in like 
manner. One of these remarkable trees in the island of 
Nerbudda is 2000 feet in circumference : the number of its 
largest trunks, each exceeding our noblest oaks in size, 
amount to 350; 7000 persons can bo covered by its shade. 
The Hindoos look upon it as the symbol of a prolific Deity. 

c 


26 


DENDROLOGY—METALLURGY. 


A plant is found in Coylon, which is said by the natives to 
supply tho place of clocks, as it continues opon from four in 
the evening to four in the morning, and remains shut during 
the other twelve hours. The Talipat of this island grows to 
the height of 100 feet; and its leaf is so large, that it will 
cover sixteen or twenty men, as an umbrella. When dried 
they are round, and fold up like a fan: every soldier carries 
one, and it serves him for a tent. 

The island of St. Lucia presents a most curious pheno¬ 
menon in the animal flower. This organization lives in a large 
bason, the water of which is brackish. It is more brilliant 
than the marygold, which it resembles : when the hand is 
extended towards it, it recoils, and retires like a snail into 
tho water. It is supposed to live upon tho spawn of fish. 

METALLURGY. 

Metallurgy is that branch of science which teaches the 
chemical combinations and analysis of metals. Metals arc 
generally known by the following characteristics:—I. They 
possess a peculiar lustre, which may be seen even in the 
smallest fragments. II. They are fusible by heat, and in 
fusion retain their lustre and opacity. III. They are all 
except selenium, good conductors both of electricity and 
caloric. IY. Many of them may be extended under the 
hammer and are called malleable , or under the rolling-press 
and are called laminable , or drawn into wire and are called 
ductile. Y. When exposed to the action of caloric, oxygen, 
chlorine, or iodine, at an elevated temperature, they generally 
take fire, and, combining with one or other of these elementary 
dissolvents in definite proportions, are converted into earthy 
or saline looking bodies devoid of metallic lustre and ductility, 
called oxides, chlorides, or iodides. YI. They are capable of 
combining in their melted state with each other in almost 
any proportion constituting alloys. These arc only some of 
their properties ; they will be most readily comprehended by 
the youthful reader. 

Platinum is the heaviest of all metals, being 1 twenty-three times heavier 
than Avater. Gold is the most valuable of all metals ; it is nineteen times 
heavier than Avater; it is so malleable, that it may be beaten into leaves of 
Avhicli 28,000 would be but an inch thick; an ounce will gild a silver 
wire 13,000 miles in length ; and it is so tenacious, that Avire one-thir¬ 
teenth of an inch in diameter will suspend 150 lbs.: 500 inches of gold 
may be drawn from a grain of that metal, and the hundred-thousandth 
part of a grain may be seen Avitli the naked eye. The loadstone, which 
possesses the singular property of pointing towards the north, is an ore 
of iron, 


METALLURGY—CHEMISTRY. 


37 


ESTIMATE OF THE ANNUAL PRODUCE OF BRITISH MINES. 

Coals. 

The Export is about 2,700,000 tons. 

The Home Consumption is estimated at about 20,009,000. 

Average price, free on board, at 10s. per ton - £15,774,147 

This, trade gives employment to about 150,000 persons. 

The capital embarked is estimated at from eight to ten 
millions. The extent of the Coal-fields in the North 
embraces 837 square miles of country, and is capable of 
supplying 14 millions of tons annually for 500 years. 


Iron - - 1,396,400 tons at £4. per ton 

Copper- - 14,000 tons at £85. per ton 

Tin - - 4,500 tons at £70. per ton 

Lead - 50,000 tons at £17. per ton 


5,585,600 

1,190,000 

315,000 

850,000 


Total * 


£23,714,747 


An Account op the Quantities and declared Value of 
Coals, Cinders, and Culm, 

Exported from the several Ports of the United Kingdom in 1848. 

Coals .2,699,468 tons.Value..£1,032,564 

Cinders.... 82,908 tons...Value. 54,861 

Culm. 2,924 tons.Value. 79G 

Total. .27785,300 tons Total. .£1,088,221 


EXPORT OF PRECIOUS METALS. 

In the year 1843, 7244 ounces of gold were exported from London to 
different parts of the world, and 9,436,087 ounces of silver. 

AMOUNT OF GOLD TENDERED AT THE BANK OF ENGLAND. 

Between June, 1842, and Feb. 1844, 2,779,000 ounces of gold coin, of 
the value of £10,820,731 was given into the Mint for recoinage. The 
total amount of light gold coin received by the Bank of England, since 
June, 1842, to Feb. 1B44, was £11,187,223. The loss on light gold is 
estimated at 2 %d. on each sovereign. 

ESTIMATED ANNUAL PRODUCE OF THE GOLD AND SILVER MINES IN 
EUROPE, ASIA, AND AMERICA. 

The estimated annual produce of the above Mines is £3,135,000 in 
gold, and £5,543,000 in silver. 

CHEMISTRY. 

This science inquires into tlie changes to which all masses 
of matter in nature are subject, either by decomposition or 
renovation ; and it imparts to its students, likewise, a know¬ 
ledge of the nature of the several parts composing such bodies. 
The ancients supposed that there were four elements which 
combined in the formation of the earth, namely, wind, fire, 
air, and water; but these have been found to be composed 
of other elements. Air is composed of nitrogen, azote, and 
oxygen j Water is a compound of oxygen and hydrogen ; 
Earth has nine different substances entering into its for¬ 
mation : and Fire is merely atomic motion. The elementary 

c 2 
















28 


CHEMISTRY—ELECTRICITY. 


bodies composing the earth are now believed to be fifty-four, 
and may be thus classified :—There are five which seem 
capable of combining with all the others; when in unison 
with a certain portion of the other simple bodies, they form 
acids ; and when with the rest, they constitute bases or 
alkaline bodies, and are capable of commingling with and 
neutrallizing the acids ; the five bodies mentioned are called 
supporters of combustion — they are oxygen, chlorine, 
bromine, iodine, and fluorine. The simple acidifiable bases 
are eighteen, among wdiicli are hydrogen, azote, nitrogen, 
carbon, boron, sulphate, &c., &c. The simple alkaline bases 
are thirty-one; amongst them are potassium, sodium, lithium, 
barium, strontium, &c.: these are likewise divided into—I. 
Difficultly fusible bases, as iron, nickel, cobalt, &c. II. Easily 
fusible bases, as zinc, cadmium, lead, tin, copper, &c. III. 
Noble metals, as gold, platinum, paladium, &c. In former 
times, chemistry was studied under the foolish supposition 
that from its principles the art of making gold, of preserving 
life, &c., might be discovered ; but these extravagant ideas 
have now passed away : the science is not, however, brought 
to perfection, although of late years it has been studied with 
great enthusiasm, by some of the most elevated minds our 
country has produced. Chemistry consists of four parts,— 
First, such substances as are properly denominated simple. 
Secondly, such as are formed by the union of simple bodies. 
Thirdly, compound substances united. And fourthly, such 
substances as we meet with in the animal, vegetable, and 
mineral worlds. 

ELECTRICITY. 

It is very difficult to define accurately the nature and 
object of the science of electricity, because philosophers them¬ 
selves are not agreed as to its definition: it may, however, 
with safety, be said to be a branch of natural philosophy, 
which investigates the attractions and repulsions, and produc¬ 
tion of light, as well as the explosions and other phenomena 
attending the friction of vitreous, resinous, and metallic sur¬ 
faces, and the heating, cooling, evaporation and mutual contact 
of a great number of bodies. The primary cause of electricity 
is the excitement of motion, which affects the atoms of some 
bodies and not those of others. The bodies capable of beiug 
affected, or of receiving an excitement, are called electrics; 
and as these exhaust or arrest the excitement, they are called 
non-conductors: they are for the most part as follows:—glass, 


EL30T3ICITY. 


39 


sillr, air, sulphur, charcoal, woollens, bakod wood, sealing-wax, 
&c.: all theso arc capablo of receiving the excitement, and 
therefore do not conduct the excitement. Excitement simply 
means the separation of elementary atoms within the electric. 
Motion excites and accumulates one kind more than another 
kind: hence any friction separates them, and the atoms which 
separate them arc the same as those which produce the acid 
and alkaline principles, or oxygen, and nitrogen, or hydrogen. 

There are, however, many bodies incapable of being excited, 
and these serve as boundaries, neutral surfaces, or unaffected 
sides to electrics; and as the excitement appears therefore to 
move or to be continued along their surfaces, they arc called 
conductors or non-electrics. 

The principal non-electrics are the metals, animal and moist 
vegetable substances, and the varied combination of theso 
with electrics ; and the commixture of both produce all tho 
, phenomena of the science. If the hand or a metallic knob 
be held within three or four inches from a metallic or main 
conductor, a large spark will escape from some point on one 
to some point on the other, which, in the dark, will be forked, 
and of the colour of lightning ; there will also be a snapping 
noise, which increased by larger quantities, would produce 
tho noise of thunder. In fact, lightning and thunder are 
effects of electricity in the clouds. A flash of lightning is 
simply a disturbed stratum between the clouds and the earth, 
restoring itself from the earth to the clouds, or from one 
cloud to another, while thunder is the report and the echo of 
the report, from the rapid passage. 

Philosophers amused themselves for a century with experi¬ 
ments on the electrical apparatus; but a new mode of exciting 
this power was discovered by Galvani, and the experiments 
made in this way are called Galvanism. Some fishes, as the 
torpedo, the gymnotus electricus, and the silorus electricus, 
when touched, communicate shocks to tho human body like 
those of electricity, and from similar causes. 

1. —Positive electricity common to fair weather, often yields to a 
negative state before rain. 

2. —In general, the rain that first falls after a depression of the barometer 
is negative. 

3. —Above forty cases of rain in one hundred give negative electricity', 
although the state of the atmosphere is positive before and afterwards. 

4. —Positive rain in a positive atmosphere occurs more rarely; perhaps 
fifteen times in one hundred. 

5. —Snow and hail unmixed with rain, are positive almost without 
exception. 

c 3 


30 


ELECTRICITY—AGRICULTURE. 


6.—Forty cases of rain in one hundred are found to affect the apparatus 
with both kinds of electricity; sometimes with an interval in which 
no rain fell; and so that a positive shower was succeeded by a negative, 
and vice versa: at others, the two kinds took place during the same 
shower. 

AGRICULTURE. 

Before man became a civilized being, or attempted to make 
any progress in the arts and sciences, it was necessary that 
he should be able to preserve his own existence ; land, like 
air, was the common property of all, and was cultivated 
without any regard to individual possession. 

The first property consisted of sheep, goats, oxen ; and the 
first husbandmen were shepherds, wdio tended their flocks, 
and drove them without restriction from pasture to pasture. 
The next step towards the exclusive right in property, was 
the obtaining a particular spot of ground, the produce of 
which he could secure to his family ; he would then bend all 
his energies carefully to cultivate, sow, and plant it, knowing 
that he should reap the reward of labour in the season of 
harvest. Farmers are called arable farmers, when they are 
chiefly employed in raising corn ; and pasture farmers or 
graziers, when they are engaged in fattening and rearing 
sheep, and other live stock. 

Farms vary in size from 50 to 1000 acres. Arable farms are 
generally smaller than those occupied in pasture or grazing, 
because they require more labour. Those from 100 to 300 
acres are most beneficial to the occupiers and the public. 

Soils may be divided into clay, loam, chalk, sand, gravel, 
peat, and moor. The clayey and loamy are called stiff and 
strong soils, and the sandy and gravelly light soils. Soils 
are barren when they consist of too much of one kind of 
material, either too moist or too dry; and they are fertile 
when they contain a due mixture of several primitive earths, 
with the remains of animal and vegetable matter. The prin¬ 
cipal agricultural implements are the spade, the mattock, and 
the hoe, the plough, the harrow, the roller, and the sickle. 

On stiff soils,ulover, beans, w heat, cabbages, and oats, may 
be cultivated ; and on light soils, potatoes, turnips, peas, oats, 
and barley. The largest cheese farms are in Cheshire and 
Denbighshire; on some of these 500 milch cows are kept. 
All cheese would be w 7 hite if it were not coloured by Spanish 
or other arnatto. The principal farming animals of England 
are, horses, cows, sheep, hogs, domestic poultry for eggs, 
geese, ducks, turkeys, guinea fowls, and pigeons; bees for 


AGRICULTURE — ARCHITECTURE. 


31 


honey, ancl fish stocked in ponds. Farmers likewise extract 
cider from apples, perry from pears, and wholesome British 
wines from various fruits. The potatoe is the most con¬ 
siderable and wholesome portion of our food ; it was brought 
from America by Sir Walter Raleigh. 


AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS. 

In the absence of official returns for the United Kingdom, the fol¬ 
lowing Estimate has been propounded:— 


Primary < 
Crops - 4 

Improved I 
Crops - I 


England and Wales. 

Wheat, 3J per acre, 12,350,000 qrs., at 50s. - 
Barley and Rye, 4 per acre, 3,600,000 qrs., at 30s. 
Oats and Beans, per acre, 13,500,000 qrs., at 25s. 
Allow 10s per quarter more for Beans 
Roots: Clover, Turnips, Potatoes, &c. at £5. 5s. 

per acre . 

Hops, and produce of Garden Grounds 


£, 

30,875,000 

5,400,000 

16,875,000 

625,000 

13,125,000 

2,250,000 


1801 to 1810 
1811 to 1820 
1821 to 1830 
1831 to 1840 
1841 to 1844 


Inclosure of Land. 

Inclosure Bills. Acres- 

Increase of 
Population. 

906 

1,657,980 

2,209,618 

771 

1,410,930 

2,643,738 

186 

340,380 

3,113,261 

120 

236,078 

2,610,272 

52 

95,160 

1,044,108 


State of Land in the British Empire. 



Arable 

and 

Gardens. 

Meadows 
Pastures & 
Marshes. 

Wastes ca¬ 
pable of Im¬ 
provement- 

Present 
Ann. Value 
of Wastes. 

Incapable 
of Improve¬ 
ment. 

Summary. 

England 
Wales - 
Scotland 
Ireland - 
Br. Isles 

10,252,800 

890,570 

2,493,950 

5,389,040 

109,630 

15,379,200 

2,226,430 

2,771,050 

6,736,240 

974,060 

3,454,000 

530,000 

5,950,000 

4,900,000 

166,000 

1,700,000 

200,000 

1,680,000 

1,395,000 

25,000 

3,256,400 

1,105,000 

8,523,930 

2,416,664 

569,469 

32,342,400 

4,752,000 

19,738,930 

19,441,944 

1,819,159 


19,135,990(37,386,980 

15,000,000 

5,000,000 

15,871,463 

77,394,433 


ARCHITECTURE. 

The buildings of man in the early stages of society are of a 
rude description, and do not even exhibit the ingenuity of 
some of the lower orders of creation. Among savage tribes 
we find many, as the Siberians and North Americans, who 
reside under ground, having their filthy habitations entirely 
closed during the winter months. In warmer regions, the 
Americans build wigwams of stakes, leaves, and turf, in the 
shape of a soldier’s tent. In proportion as mankind increased 
in the arts of civilization and the elegancies of life, they 
cultivated a more polished and graceful style of building. 






















ASOniTECTUBE. 


oo 

KiO 


Wo have the remains of sis principal stylos amongst us :— 
I. The Tuscan. —This order admits of no ornaments or flutes 
Ill the columns, but rustic cinctures are sometimes represented 
on the shaft. This order may be employed in most case3 
where strength and simplicity are required rather than mag¬ 
nificence, such as prisons, market-places, arsenals, or the 
inferior parts of large buildings. II. The Doric. —The origin 
of this order has been ascribed to Dorus, the son of Ilellen 
and the nymph Grises ; this is, however, most likely fabulous ; 
some specimens of this order may be seen in the British 
Museum among the Elgin marbles. III. The Ionic. —This 
derives its name from the fact of its being invented by the 
lonians; the temple on the Ilyssus, and those of Neptune 
and Minerva in the Athenian Acropolis, are the best existing 
monuments of this order. IY. The Corinthian. —This is the 
richest of the Grecian orders; it possesses grace, delicacy, 
and splendour, and was considered by the ancients as the 
chef d'oeuvre of architecture. Y. The Toman or Composite .— 
This differed little from the Corinthian; a great deal of the 
beauty of the latter was lost on the former by an excess of 
gorgeousness, which lessened the effect. There is an orna¬ 
ment in the Corinthian architecture which we must not pass 
over. It is the Caryatides, or figure of a female which took 
the place of a column, and gave an additional beauty of 
architecture to the entire building: the figures may be seen 
in St. Pancras Church, London, correctly copied from a 
Grecian temple. YI. The Gothic. —This was founded, wo 
have reason to believe, by our Norman sires ; it is most 
remarkable for its pointed arch; it is not so classical as the pre¬ 
viously mentioned orders, but it certainly harmonises better 
with our ideas of monasteries and abbeys, which are, generally 
speaking, built in this style : we may instance, as two of the 
most splendid specimens of it extant, the porch of Bedcliffe 
church, Bristol, and King’s College Chapel, Cambridge. 

The Escurial, or royal palace of Spain, is the largest in Europe ; it i 3 
situated in the province of New Castile, and was erected by Philip II. 
to commemorate the victory gained over the French at St. Quintin, 
Aug. 10th, 1557. The palace contains 11,000 windows, 14,000 doors, 
8,000 columns, and several thousand apartments, some of which are 
very large. This stupendous work was finished at an expense of six 
millions of crowns, and occupied twenty-four years in its construction. 
It is usually the place of burial for the kings and queens of Spain. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


33 


RELATIVE HEIGHT OF BUILDINGS 


1.—Apparently the most ancient, and certainly the most colossal, 
structures in the world, are the Pyramids of Egypt: the largest is said 
to occupy a space equal to that enclosed by the railing in Lincoln’s Inn 
Fields, and has been raised to the enormous height of 514 feet, being 
110 feet higher than St. Paul’s. 2.—The Cathedral of St. Peter’s at 
Itome stands next to the Pyramids : it rises to a height of 464 feet. 
3 .—The Cathedral of Strasburg, lower only by one foot than St. Peter’s, 
appears in reality much higher, in consequence of its tasteful and delicate 
architecture. 4.—Salisbury Cathedral stands upon a base of 100 feet 
square, and reaches to a height within 50 feet of that of the great pyra¬ 
mid, being 463 from the ground. 5.—St. Paul’s Cathedral, although the 
first in importance of our Protestant churches, is not so high as Salisbury 
just mentioned ; the summit of the cross is 404 feet from the ground. 
6.—St. Giralda, at Seville, is the only church noted for its height in 
Spain : its height is 350 feet. 7.—One of the most lofty buildings used 
for public service among the heathen, is the tower of Minar, at Delhi: 
it is built somewhat in the figure of a round obelisk ; its height is 262 
feet. 8.—The Porcelain Tower of Nankin is the most elevated of the 
Chinese pagodas, which, generally speaking, do not rise beyond sixty 
or seventy feet; the buildings of the Chinese can seldom be seen by 
foreigners, and this is held in especial veneration : its height is 249 feet. 
9.—The church of Notre Dame is the principal sacred edifice in Paris : 
it is, however, only 232 feet in height. 10.—The Monument of London 
was built to commemorate the great fire, by Sir Christopher Wren in 
1606: its height is 210 feet. 11.—The Leaning Tower of Pisa is one of 
the most remarkable buildings the world contains : its hoiizontal incli¬ 
nation does not affect its safety : its height is 202 feet. 12.—The Bridge 
of Alcantara, an ancient town and frontier fortress in the Spanish 
province of Estremadura, rises in elevation to 196 feet. 13.—The Mosque 
of St. Sophia at Constantinople, out of 500 others in the same city, is the 
principal: it is 270 feet in length by 240 in breadth: its height is 189 
feet. 14.—The Place Yendome, Paris, is 153 feet. 15.—Trajan’s Pillar, 
at Home, is considered one of the finest pieces of monumental archi¬ 
tecture in the world: its height is 151 feet. 16.—Mosque of Omer, 
Jerusalem, is a splendid temple, so styled from the Saracen Caliph who 
erected it: its height is 125 feet. 17.—The Luxor or Obelisk, originally 
the temple of Elaksor, was removed by Napoleon to Paris, where it still 
remains: its height is 110 feet. 18.—The Aqueduct of Segovia is a 
very remarkable object of antiquity : it is supported by 159 arches, and 
is 102 feet in height. 19.—The Sphinx is a colossal image near the 
group of Pyramids at Gizeh : it is above 150 feet long and 63 feet high. 

Before we leave this notice, we may remark that St. Peter’s and St. 
Paul’s rank as the largest edifices in Christendom : undoubtedly St. 
Peter’s is vastly superior to our metropolitan church, but there is a 
sense in which our national edifice excels even St. Peter’s : St. Peter’s 
occupied 145 years in building, Avas the work of twelve successive 
architects, and exhausted the revenues of nineteen successive popes : 
St. Paul’s was completed under the direction of one architect, in the 
space of 37 years; the expense was entirely defrayed by a small tax on 
coals. The dimensions of this cathedral, when compared with those of 
St. Peter’s, are :— 


St. Paul’s. 
.. 500 .. 
... 223 .. 
.. 340 .. 


St. Peter’s. 
.. 669 
... 442 
... 432 


Length within .. 
Greatest breadth 
Height. 








34 


ARCHITECTURE—COMMERCE. 


EXPERIMENTS ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, 


By Professor Hodgkinson. 


Material. 


Tensile 

Transverse 

Crushing Strength, 

1,000. 

strength. 

strength. 

Timber - - 

1 

A 

1 

1 

1,900 

85-1 

Cast Iron - 

158 

19-8 

Glass (Plate and Crown) - 

- 

123 

10- 

Stone and Marble - 

- 

100 

9-8 


The ratio of the crushing force to the transverse force is nearly the 
same in glass, stone, and marble, including the hardest and softest 
kinds. Hence, if we know the transverse strength in any of these 
bodies, we may predict the other ; and as glass and the hardest stones 
resist crushing with from seven to nine times the energy that they do 
being torn asunder, we may get an approximate value of the tensile 
force from the crushing force, or vice versa. 

COMMERCE. 

Commerce is the great link which binds societies together, 
whether considered as communities or nations ; it is the 
great source of wealth and power; besides which, by it mil¬ 
lions of individuals are supported in health and happiness. 

Trades are frequently intimately connected, and mutually 
assist each other ; thus it has been ingeniously shown, that 
the production of a book gives employment to about 100 
different departments of trade—the author, seller, publisher, 
rag-merchant, paper-maker, stationer and type-founder, tho 
press-maker, ink-maker, the chase-maker, the compositor, the 
pressman, the gatherer, the folder, the stitcher, the leather- 
seller, the binder, the eoppcr-plato printer, &c. &c. 

A pack of wool, weighing 2401bs., employs 200 persons 
before it is ready in the form of stuffs, cloths, &c. for sale. 
A sword wrought of steel, the original metal of which was not 
worth a shilling, is sometimes sold for 300 guineas ; and a 
watch chain has produced 50 guineas, the metal of which, 
before it was wrought by the hand of man, was not worth 
three-pence. A yard of lace will fetch 20 guineas, the flax in 
which was originally not worth three-pence. A painting not 
two square yards has been valued at £25,000: and a shawl, 
which contains but a few ounces of wool, and may be drawn 
through a curtain ring, sells for from 60 to 80 guineas. 

Within the last thirty years, Britain appears to havo mono¬ 
polized the trade almost of the whole world. It has not only 








COMMERCE. 


35 


tho greatest manufacturers, but also the greatest carriers of 
dcsirablo produce, and has throe timos as many merchant 
vessels on tho seas as all other nations put togethor. In the 
West Indies, Groat Britain occupies Jamaica, Barbadoes, 
and a dozen other islands, besides Demerara, &c. on the main, 
all of which supply sugar, rum, cotton, coffee, spices, drugs, 
mahogany, dried and preserved fruits, &c. These luxuries 
servo to gratify ourselves, while they becomo desirable me¬ 
diums of exchange for the produce and manufactures of many 
other countries. We send them to Russia, in exchange for 
hemp, tar, and tallow ; to Sweden, for copper; to Norway, 
for timber ; to Germany, for wool, rags, and smalts for 
paper; to France, for wino and brandy ; to Portugal, for 
wine; to Spain, for gold, silver, and fruit; to Italy, for silk, 
rags, oil, and fruit; to Turkey, for silk, drugs, oil, and coffee. 

The chief ports of the United Kingdom, are—London, Liver¬ 
pool, Bristol, Glasgow, Grennock, Hull, Falmouth, Dartmouth, 
Plymouth, Devonport, Portsmouth, Yarmouth, Lynn, Shields, 
Leith, Aberdeen, Whitehaven, Swansea, Dublin, Cork, Water¬ 
ford. The chief manufacturing towns, for cutlery and metallic 
wares, are Birmingham, Wolverhampton, and Sheffield: for 
calicoes and muslins, Manchester, Stockport, Bolton, Glasgow, 
and Paisley : for woollen cloths, Leeds and Norwich ; for 
hosiery, Nottingham and Leicester; for linens, Belfast and 
Londonderry ; for carpets, Kidderminster and Wilton ; for 
china, glass, &c., Newcastle and Worcester. 

VALUE OF THE IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF THE 
UNITED KINGDOM 


During each of the three years ending 5th of January, 1814; also, the 
amount of the produce and manufactures of the United Kingdom 

exported therefrom. 


60 tl 

Value of 
imports into 
the United 
Kingdom. 

VALUE OF 

EXPORTS FROM UNITED 
KINGDOM. 

Value of the 
Produce and 

§1 
oS 4 

CL) 1 —I 

Produce and 
Manufactures 
of the United 
Kingdom. 

Foreign and 
Colonial 
merchandize. 

Total 

Exports. 

Manufacture of 
the United King¬ 
dom exported 
therefrom. 

1842 

1813 

1844 

£. 

64,377,962 

65,204,729 

68,433,050 

£. 

102,180,517 

100,260,101 

117,574,563 

£. 

14,723,151 

13,584,158 

13,947,513 

£. 

116,903,668 

113,844,259 

131,522,076 

£. 

51,634,623 

47,381,023 

51,932,056 


AMOUNT OF COMMERCE OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES TO 
EACH INDIVIDUAL. 

Great Britain - - 86s. 10 d. France - 34s, 2d. 

Belgium - 70 0 Russia - - - - 7 4 

United States - • (il 0 



















36 


COMMERCE, 


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PROPORTION OF NUTRIMENT CONTAINED IN VARIOUS 
ARTICLES OF FOOD. 

CCommunicated by Dr. Thompson, of Glasgow.J 


Greens and Turnips - - 1 in 612 
Carrots - - - - - 1 „ 347 


Potatoes - 
Wheat Flour 


1 m 281 
1 „ 49 


Meat contains about 26 per cent, of nutritive matter, 74 per cent, being 
water, and is twice as nutritious as bread. 


upply 









































COMMERCE—NAVIGATION. 37 

NUMBER AND POPULATION OF THE BRITISH COLONIES. 


Europe - 
Asia - 
Australasia 
Africa - 
North America 
South America 
West India Islands 

Total 



Number of 
Colonies. 

POPULATION. 

Whites. 

Coloured. 

- 

11 

490,000 


- 

10 

122,000 

101,560,079 

- 

8 

191,800 

155,000 

- 

13 

67,868 

222,800 

- 

8 

1,510,000 

120,000 

- 

5 

3,958 

99,571 

- 

18 

871,850 

639,708 

- 

73 

3,257,476 

102,797,158 


The total cost of the above Colonies to Great Britain is nearly 
£2,650,000 per annum. 


THE COLONIES OF GREAT BRITAIN. 

A Parliamentary Return just published gives a full and complete list 
of all the Colonies of Great Britain, with the total cost to this Country 
for pay and commissariat expenses, for the five years ending March, 
1847. The following are the names of the Colonies, with the expenses : 
North American possessions—Canada, £1,726,213 ; Fort Garry, £12,130; 
Nova Scotia and Prince Edward’s Island, £522,324; New Brunswick, 
£11,584 ; Newfoundland, £93,240; Bermuda, £280,603 : West India pos¬ 
sessions—Jamaica, £591,393; Honduras, £47,388; Bahamas, £108,303; 
Barbadoes, £1,091,173 ; St. Vincent, £4,495; Granada, £4,614; Tobago, 
£3,724; St. Lucia, £4,250; Antigua, £4,859; Monserrat, nil ; St. Chris- 
opher, £4,636; Nevis, nil'. Virgin Islands, nil ; Dominica, £3,828; 
British Guiana, £7,146; Trinidad, £5,498; Mediterranean and African 
possessions—Gibraltar, £672,584 ; Malta, £398,768 ; Ionian Islands, 
£471,136; Cape of Good Hope, £1,353,615; Sierra Leone, £86,323 ; 
Gambia, £62,166; Forts and Settlements of Gold Coast, £16,675; St. 
Helena, £109,721 : Australian possessions —New South Wales, £360,313 ; 
South Australian, 1,875; Van Dieman’s Land, £313,534 ; South Australia, 
£15,890; West Australia, £43.636 ; New Zealand, £132,151: Miscella¬ 
neous— Mauritius, £387,645; Ceylon, £332,665; Hong Kong, £463,853 ; 
Falkland Islands, £1,366. Total, £9,742,354. 

Great Britain and Ireland, with their thirty millions of inhabitants, 
have a greater number of Britons than all our Colonies put together. 


NAVIGATION. 

Navigation is one of the most wonderful of the arts; it 
enables men to conduct great ships with precision from port 
to port across vast seas, on which they sail for many weeks 
without the sight of land. The Phoenicians and Phrygians 
were the first people on record who employed ships to carry, 
the produce and manufactures of one nation to another. 
They were followed by the Carthagenians, Britons, Venetians, 
and Genoese. During the two last centuries, the Portuguese 
and Dutch divided the trade of the world with the English ; 
during the last fifty years, the balance has been suspended 
between England and America. 

D 
















38 


NAVIGATION. 


Till within the last 400 years, no ship ventured out of sight 
of land. If the mariners lost sight of the land they despaired 
of regaining it; such were the disadvantages of Phoenician, 
Carthagenian, Roman, and Grecian navigation. 

In the thirteenth century, it was discovered that if a cer¬ 
tain ore of iron was suspended on a point, and allowed to turn 
itself at pleasure, it would always point towards the north, or 
the same part of the world. Hence, if a seaman took with 
him to sea one of these magnets or loadstones, he was enabled 
to distinguish the north, and keep a journal of his course. 

The loadstone, or magnetic needle, as it is also called, is * 
usually placed in a frame, and covered by a glass ; beneath it 
in a frame, are marked the thirty-two points; the principal 
of these are the four cardinal points, that is, north, south, 
east, and west. A skilful sailor, though lost on the wide 
ocean, can always tell -where he is by the position of the sun, 
moon, and stars in the heavens. Thus, if it appear by the 
almanack, that at London the sun is on the 5th of June sixty- 
one degrees high at 12 o’clock, and a sailor finds it at that 
time to be seventy degrees high, he concludes that he is nine 
degrees nearer to the vertical place of the sun or moon to the 
south, than London—thus he determines his latitude or dis¬ 
tance from the equator. 

Again, if it appear by an almanack, that, on the evening of 
June 5th, the moon comes to a conjunction with the planet 
Mars, at London, and a sailor finds it take place at 9 o’clock 
where he is, he concludes that he is one hour or 15 degrees 
west: hence he determines the longitude or the distances from 
any known meridian of the place where he is. So vast are 
the improvements in navigation in our days, that a ship has 
sailed from Portsmouth to Calcutta in fifty-five days, a voy¬ 
age which formerly employed six months ; from Portsmouth 
to Malta in eleven days, formerly two months ; and to the 
West Indies in twenty-one days, formerly two months. 
Drake and Anson were three years sailing round the world, 
and this is now frequently performed by merchantmen in 
nine or ten months. 


NUMBER AND TONNAGE OF STEAM VESSELS 
Belonging to the British Empire in 1844. 


United Kingdom. 

Isles of Guernsey, 
Jersey, and Man. 

British 

Plantations. 

Total. 

Ships. 

! Tons. 

Ships. 

Tons. 

Ships. 

Tons 

Ships. 

Tons. 

855 

j 109,146 

4 

587 

93 

10,416 

952 

120,149 






















NAVIGATION 


39 


NUMBER OF VESSELS 

Employed in the Foreign Trade of the United Kingdom in the Tear 
_ endi ng 5 th January, 1848. 



INWARDS. 

OUTWARDS- 


Vessels. 

Tons. 

Men. 

Vessels. 

Tons. 

[Men. 

British .. 

18,147 

4,020,415 

211,326 

15,206 

3,553,777 

21,976 

Foreign. 

9,639 

1,559,046 

79,791 

6,774 

1,497,460 

81,718 

Total .... 

27,786 

5,579,461 

291,117 

24.893 

5,051,237 

299,694 


VESSELS EMPLOYED IN THE COASTING TRADE OF THE 

UNITED KINGDOM. 

An Account of the Number and Tonnage of Vessels which Entered Inwards and 
Cleared Outwards with Cargoes, at the several Ports of the United Kingdom, 
during the Year 1S4S, compared with the Entries and Clearances of the preceding 
Year; distinguishing the Vessels employed in the Intercourse between Great 
Britain and Ireland from other Coasters- 


ENTERED INWARDS. 


CLEARED OUTWARDS. 


VESSELS. 


Employed in 
the intercourse 
between Great 
Brit. &.Ireland 
OthrCoast.Ves. 

Total - 


1847. 

1848. 

1847. 

1848. 

Ships. 

Tonnage 

Ships. 

Tonnage 

Ships. 

Tonnage 

Ships. 

Tonnage 

8,085 

134,410 

1,296,610 

10,923,186 

9,109 

131,332 

1,470,309 

11,053,563 

17,935 

140,987 

2,047,387 
11,218 238 

18,941 

136,804 

2,153,054 

11,162,295 

142,525 

12,219,796 

140,441 

12,523,872 [ 158,922 

13,265,625 155,745 

13,315,349 


The Amount Voted for Ship-Building and the Maintenance 
of the Government Navy, in the following Years :— 


1832 

.£4,878,634 

1838 

.£4,811,990 

1844 .. 


1833 

. 4,658,134 

1839 

. 4,197,511 

1845 .. 

.... 6,943,720 

1834 

. 4,578,009 

1840 

. 5,824,074 

1846 .. 


1835 

. 4,245,723 

1841 

. 6,805,353 

1847 .. 

.... 7,747,156 

1836 

. 4,533,543 

1842 

. 6,818,181 



1837 

. 4,788,761 

1843 

. 6,382,990 


£91,992,662 


The wages and cost of victualling' for all hands, sailors and marines, 
in those sixteen yeaTs, were probably about £26,000,000, estimating by 
the number of men employed in each year. Add to this the cost for 
ship-building, as already stated, namely, £4,334,915, and there is a sum 
of £30,334,915. Add to the cost of ship-building one-half for rigging, 
sails, and stores to complete for sea, or £2,167,547, and there is a cost, 
exclusive of machinery to steamers, repairs, and dockyard buildings, of 
£32,502,462, about one-third only of the whole money voted. Guns and 
ammunition«are paid for under the Ordnance estimates. 

In 1848, the sum was £7,972,021; in 1849, £7,451,842. 

The number of men voted for the navy in 1836 was 33.700, and in 1848, 
43,000. In the navy the increase of men has been 9,800, or nearly one- 
third, of charge from £4,533,543 to £7,747,156 : being an augmentation to 
the amount of £3,213,613 in this one department. 

When fighting with Napoleon we had but 36 admirals in the service; 
whereas now, in time of peace, we have no less than 151 on full pay, 
besides 43 on the retired list. Of 541 captains, above 100 are unfit for 
service. Of 870 commanders, one-half are of the same description; and 

d2 














































































40 


NAVIGATION—MECHANICS. 


of 2,310 lieutenants, at least 1,300 are disqualified for employment at 
sea. So extravagant is the mode of building ships (says Mr. Hume), 
that if economy were studied, the navy estimates might be reduced 
from £8,000,000 to £4,000,000. 


NAVAL FORCES OF THE CHIEF STATES. 



Afloat. 

In Ordinary and 
Building. 

Total. 

Ships. 

Guns. 

Ships. 1 

Guns. 

Ships. 

Guns. 

Great Britain.. 

332 

4,588 

304 

13,098 

636 

17,686 

France . 

215 

4,293 

181 

4,635 

396 

8,928 

Russia. 

179 

5,896 



179 

5,896 

Turkey . 

62 

2,636 

4 

24 

66 

2,660 

United States.. 

47 

1,155 

30 

1,190 

77 

2,345 

Egypt . 

35 

1,448 

3 

312 

38 

1,760 

Holland . 

48 

302 

85 

1,344 

133 

1,646 

Sweden. 

330 

660 

50 

1,196 

380 

1,856 

Denmark. 

96 

344 

12 

732 

108 

1,076 

Austria. 

74 

686 


_ 

74 

686 

Brazil . 

31 

450 

11 

325 

42 

775 

Sardinia . 

11 

226 

4 

220 

15 

446 

Spain. 

21 

348 

- • 

- 

21 

348 

Two Sicilies .. 

17 

338 

• - 

- 

17 

338 

Portugal. 

59 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Mexico. 

23 

42 

- 

- 

23 

42 


THE FRENCH AND ENGLISH NAVY. 

Mr. Milner Gibson states he had carefully compared the French navy 
list with that of England, and he found that in the French navy there 
wa§ but 1 full admiral; in the English there were 31. In France there 
were 10 vice-admirals; in England, 45. In France, the rear-admirals were 
20 ; in England, 72. The French navy had 100 captains ; the English, 
554. There were 200 French commanders, 876 English; and whilst on 
the navy list of France there were 600 lieutenants, on our own there 
were 2,353. So that while 931 officers in Finance were all that was 
required to take care of her navy and protect the interests of her com¬ 
merce, more than 3,931 were required to take care of our own. 

MECHANICS. 

In a scientific arrangement mechanics would, doubtless, be 
included uuder the head Dynamics, as it comprehends the 
doctrines of rest, equilibrium, and the motions; we, however, 
have confined the definition to the forces relating to the arts, 
while Dynamics applies to the great forces which give motion 
to the universe. 

The mechanical powers are engines composed on the prin¬ 
ciples of the laws of motion increasing the effect of a given 
power, so that its momentum exceeds that of the resistance, 
enabling men to raise heavy weights, move heavy bodies, and 
overcome resistance. In mechanics, various moving powers 
are employed: —I. The strength of animals, men, horses, 



































MECHANICS—MYTHOLOGY. 


41 


oxen, &c. II. The force of running water and wind, as in 
the instance of mills. III. The force of steam. IV. The 
weight of heavy bodies. In mechanical contrivances ; here 
three particulars must be considered: —1st. The weight to 
be raised, or the resistance to be overcome. 2nd. The power 
to raise it; and 3rd. The instruments to be employed. There 
are six mechanical powers : the first is the lever, which is the 
most simple, being merely a bar of wood or iron : it is the 
foundation of all balance. There are three kinds of levers : 
the 1st is where the fulcrum and the resistance meet, as the 
balance, snuffers, scissors, &c.; the 2nd, where the resistance 
is between the prop and the power, as oars, rudders of boats, 
&c.; the 3rd kind is where the power acts between the prop 
and the resistance. II. The wheel and the axle : this has 
been termed the perpetual lever, because it acts upon the 
same principle. In the axle, the power is applied to the cir¬ 
cumference of the wheel, by means of a rope or otherwise, 
the weights raised being fastened to a rope, which winds 
round the axis, in order to overcome resistance, or elevate 
the weight. III. The inclined plane: it is upon this prin¬ 
ciple that all roads leading over eminences are constructed. 
V e can easily see that it would be next to an impossibility to 
ascend a precipitous mountain without this simple contri¬ 
vance. The road being cut in a horizontal inclined plane, 
in the manner of a screw, the inclination is rendered gradual, 
and it can now be ascended with comparative ease; waggons 
filled with stones may be dragged to their summit, by the aid 
of a power equal to about half their weight, by the means of 
horses or other animal power. IV. The wedge may be con¬ 
sidered as two equally inclined planes, united at a point; it is 
an important mechanical power, used to split rocks, timber, 
&c., which could not otherwise be effected; also to raise 
immense weights, as ships, &c. Y. The pulley, which is a 
small wheel turning on an axis, with a rope passing over it. 
YI. The screw is a spiral groove or thread, winding round a 
cylinder, so as to cut all the lines drawn on its surface parallel 
to the axis at the same angle. Most kinds of presses, common 
cork-screws, &c., work on this principle. 

MYTHOLOGY. 

Mythology is the history of the fabulous gods and heroes 
of antiquity, and. it very seldom receives that regard which it 
in reality deserves; generally speaking, truth may be dis* 

d3 


42 


MYTHOLOGY. 


cerned, though dressed iu fiction and falsehood. Most of 
the personages celebrated in mythological history had an 
existence : they signalized themselves from the rest of man¬ 
kind, and were therefore considered as supernatural beings, and 
regarded and spoken of as such. Other parts of mythology 
are to be regarded as allegorical: hence the war of the gods 
with the giants was intended to represent the war of the 
elements with nature, which to the ancients seemed to be the 
case when volcanic eruptions took place, or when the storm 
was heard in the heavens. The following is a brief summary 
of the principal of the gods :— 

Egyptian.— Isis, the goddess of agriculture and legislation : she was 
worshipped under the form of a cow—her tears were said to occasion 
the overflowing of the Nile. Osiris was the husband of Isis: he was 
worshipped under the form of an ox: he presided over vegetation, and 
was supposed to be the sun. Typhon was a monster partly in the form 
of a man, partly in the form of a wild beast. The Sphinx was likewise 
a monster, having the face of a woman, the breast, feet, and tail of a 
lion, and the feathers of a bird. 

Greece was the principal seat of mythology. There were nine 
Muses, who presided over the liberal arts : they were the daughters of 
Mnemosyne , the goddess of Memory, and Jupiter ; they were as follows : 
Clio presided over history; she was represented as crowned with laurels, 
holding a trumpet and a book. Euterpe— music ; she was crowned with 
flowers, and drawn playing on a flute. Thalia —festivals, pastoral and 
comic poetry; she held a mask in her right hand, a shepherd’s crook in 
her left. Melpomene —tragedy; she was represented wearing buskins, 
a crown and sceptre in one hand, and a dagger in the other. Erato — 
lyric poetry; she was crowned with myrtle and roses, having a lyre in 
one hand and a lute in the other. Terpsichore —dancing; her symbol 
was a harp, and her head was crowned with laurel. Folyphemia— 
rhetoric and singing; she appeared crowned with jewels, holding a 
sceptre. Calliope —eloquence and heroic poetry; she held a trumpet in 
her right hand, and books in the other, implying that her office was to 
celebrate the actions of heroes ; she was generally crowned with laurels. 
Urania —astronomy; she held a.celestial globe, mathematical instru¬ 
ments being placed around, and was covered Avith stars. 

Of the gods, Jupiter was the most powerful; he was called the 
Thunderer. Juno was the wife of Jupiter, and queen of heaven. 
Minerva, or Pallas, was daughter of Jupiter, and goddess of wisdom. 
Neptune was worshipped as the god of the sea. Venus was the goddess 
of love and beauty, and is said to have sprung from the froth of the sea. 
Mars, the god of Avar, Avas celebrated as a Avarrior, riding in a chariot 
drawn by horses : Discord preceded them, and Distraction, Rage, Fear, 
and Terror, attended their progress. Vesta Avas the goddess of fire. 
Vulcan was the god of fire ; he was said to forge the armour of the gods 
and the thunder of Jupiter. Apollo was the god of music, poetry, and 
the sciences. Diana, the sister of Apollo, Avas the goddess of chastity, 
hunting, and the Avoods. Ceres, the goddess of agriculture, first taught 
the art of soAving and making bread. Mercury, the messenger of the 
gods, the inventor of the letters and of arts and sciences, Avas the patron 
of theft and eloquence. Somnns Avas the god of sleep; Morpheus of 
dreams; Erebus of darkness: Flutus of riches; Momus of folly; Nox 


MYTHOLOGY—HISTORY. 


43 


was the goddess of night; Chaos, her mother, presided over confusion. 
The three Graces were the daughters of Jupiter by Euronyme ; Minos, 
Rhadamanthus, and JEacus, were the inexorable judges of the actions 
of the dead. Tisophone, Alecto, Megaera, were the executioners and 
gaolers of Tartarus ; they were armed with torches and snakes. Charon 
conducted the souls of the dead across the Styx, where they drank of 
the waters of Lethe, or oblivion. The Elysian Fields were the paradise 
of the good. The Fates were Clotho, who held the distaff; Lachcsis, 
who spun the thread of destiny; and Atropos, who with her scissors 
cut it asunder. 

The mythology of the Northern Nations was the most daring and 
fiery; from their gods, through the Saxons, the names of the days of 
our week are derived ; Sunday, because on that day, lhey worshipped 
the Sun; Monday, the moon ; Tuesday, Tuesco, one of their apotheosised 
deities; Wednesday, Woden, their chief divinity; Thursday, or Thor’s- 
day, the king of the gods; Friday, Friga ; and Saturday, Saturna. 
Valhalla was the palace of Odin, where the souls of heroes enjoyed 
supreme felicity, drinking wine from their enemies’ skulls ; from Hela, 
their place of torture, comes our word hell; from Sinna, the wife of 
their evil genius, comes our word sin. The study of mythology is cer¬ 
tainly, if attentively and cautiously pursued, a key to history, although 
other subjects are certainly more worthy of attention. 

HISTOEY. 

History is a science (though it is seldom thus regarded), 
which treats of man in all his social relations, political, com¬ 
mercial, religious, moral, and literary ; its great object is to 
show the influence which man exercises upon the whole world 
through all time. History may be variously studied—I. By 
oral tradition ; that is, by the legends and tales which are 
handed down from one generation to another, and which, 
although clothed in fiction, are generally based on truth. IT. 
By national poetry: thus Homer and Ossian are certainly 
historians, especially the former : they develope manners and 
customs, paint objects, events, and sentiments, as they existed 
in their own times. III. By hieroglyphics ; the principal 
source of this branch of study is Egypt; the sarcophagi or 
stone coffins are covered with interesting records touching its 
history, precedent to the period when they were engraven : 
in Mexico and Peru these enigmatical histories are found in 
the form of paintings; they likewise abound in China. IY. 
By coins ; and this branch of the study of history is becoming 
every day more and more popular: thus the history of 
Christianity, the decline and fall of the Eoman empire, and 
several other important circumstances, have been clearly and 
legibly transcribed from the coin to the book ; this is perhaps 
the most incontestible and permanent species of historical 
evidence we have in our possession. There are many other 
minor sources of historical information, but we notice that to 


44 


HISTORY. 


which appeal is usually made—the written records of history. 

History is divided into Sacred, or that which is derived 
from the Old and New Testament, and Profane, which 
includes the history of all nations, from their poets, medals, 
inscriptions, &c. Again, history is divided into three sec¬ 
tions :—1st. Ancient, which treats of events from the earliest 
records to the decline and fall of the Roman empire, A.D. 
476. 2nd. The middle ages beginning with 476, down to the 
discovery of America, 1492, because this event produced a 
decided change in common politics, &c. ; others bring it down 
to the period of the Reformation. 3rd. Modern history, 
which reaches from about 1500 to our own times. 

The most memorable events in sacred history, are the 
creation of the world, the disobedience of our first parents, 
the deluge, the confusion of t ongues, the call of Abraham, the 
exodus of Israel out of Egypt, and the giving of the Law on 
Mount Sinai, the conquest of Canaan by Joshua, the reigns 
of David and Solomon, the building of Solomon’s Temple, 
the destruction of Jerusalem, the end of the captivity, the 
birth of Christ. 

The four great empires of antiquity were—I. The Assyrian, 
founded by Belus, nearly 2000 years B.C.: among its different 
monarchs Ninus and Semiramis were greatly distinguished ; 
its glory terminated in the person of Sardanapalus, B.C. 767. 
The country is now called Cardistan. II. The Persian, 
founded by Cyrus the Great, about 600 B.C. ; it included all 
India, Assyria, and Persia; it existed nearly 300 years. III. 
The Grecian comprehended modern Greece, and all the 
countries from the Hellespont to India; on the death of 
Alexander, its founder, it was divided into separate kingdoms 
among his captains. IY. The Roman, which, under Augustus, 
comprehended the greater part of the known globe, extending 
above 2000 miles in length. 

The principal events of modern history are—I. The subju¬ 
gation of the greater part of Europe under Charlemagne, in 
the eighth century. II. The croisades, or crusades, 1096. 
III. The invention of printing in the fifteenth century, the 
discovery of America, 1492, and the revival of learning and 
literature. IY. The rise and progress of the Reformation. 
V. The French Revolution, and the victories of Buonaparte. 

The following is a list of the primitive races which figure 
in modern history :—The Suns occupied a large tract of 
country on the north side of the great walL of China: there 


HISTOEY—CHEONOLOGY. 


45 


were two divisions of them ; 1st, the Eplitlialite, or Nephtha- 
lite, or White Huns; 2nd, the Sarmatian, or Scythian Huns. 
The Huns invaded the Roman empire about the year 400, 
from the settlements on the east of the Palus Moeotis, or sea 
of Azof: their greatest leader was Attila, called the Scourge 
of God, who was slain at the battle of Chalons, in Gaul, about 
the year 450. The Goths inhabited Scandinavia ; the Westro, 
or Visigoth, dwelt in and about Denmark, and the Ostro 
lived more to the east, adjoining the Baltic sea : they became 
formidable to the Romans in the reign of Caracalla, in the 
year 212 ; their greatest leader was Alaric ; Roderic their 
king, who was defeated and slain by the Moors at the battle 
of Xeres, in Spain, 713, is styled the last of the Goths. The 
Vandals were of Gothic origin ; they settled in Africa in the 
year 439, under their king Genseric ; Belisarius conquered 
them in the year 534, and took their king prisoner. The 
Lombards were a tribe of Goths, under their king Alborn : 
they founded the kingdom of Lombardy, which lasted from 
the year 568 to 774, when Charlemagne destroyed it. The 
Franks were originally a tribe of Germans, who lived on the 
banks of the Lower Rhine and Weser: they afterwards in¬ 
vaded and took possession of France. The Normans were a 
race of Scandinavian Goths: and Rolla, their chief, first 
founded the kingdom of Normandy; from this man descended 
our William the Conqueror. The other principal races were 
the Turcomans and Saracens. 

CHRONOLOGY. 

Chronology may be defined a scientific method of ascer¬ 
taining or computing time, from the commencement of some 
given event to the completion or fulfilment of another, with 
the doctrine of dates, seras, epochs, &c., coincident therewith. 
The most obvious divisions of time in all ages and countries 
are to be referred to the apparent or real revolutions of the 
sun and moon. Thus, the apparent revolution of the sun, or 
the real rotation of the earth on her axis, in causing the sun 
to appear to rise and set, constitutes the vicissitudes of day 
and night, which must be evident to the most ignorant and 
barbarous nations. The moon, by her revolution about the 
earth, and her changes, as naturally and obviously forms 
months ; while the great annual course of the sun through 
the several constellations of the Zodiac, points out the larger 
division of the year. 


46 


CHBOIfOLOGY. 


Comparatively speaking the science of Chronology is but 
of recent origin ; for many ages elapsed before the mode of 
computing time, or even of giving dates to important events, 
was at all regarded : nay, after the value of historical writings 
was felt and acknowledged, Chronology long remained im¬ 
perfect ; the most ancient historians leaving the precise 
periods they record undetermined. When Homer and Hero¬ 
dotus wrote, and for centuries afterwards, there was no 
regular distribution of time into such parts as months, weeks, 
and hours : nor any reference to clocks, dials, or other instru¬ 
ments, by which the perpetual current of time was subdivided. 

An hour is the twenty-fourth part of a natural day, or the 
time from noon to noon. The hour is divided into sixtieths : 
first, into sixty minutes, and each minute into sixty seconds. 

A day is a period of time denoting a complete revolution 
of the earth upon its axis ; in popular phraseology, the term 
is applied to that period of time between the first appearance 
of light in the morning, and the return of darkness in the 
evening. 

The week is a period of time, under which denomination 
various divisions have obtained in different countries. The 
week of the earlier Greeks comprehended a period of ten days j 
the Northern Chinese had a week of fifteen days ; and the 
Mexicans one of thirteen. Most of the oriental nations have 
used the Jewish week of seven days, which has been adopted 
by Mahomedanism and Christianity, and used in most civi¬ 
lized nations. 

The month , in the ancient computations of time, was in¬ 
variably determined by the phases of the moon; but the 
difficulty of adjusting this division to the annual revolution 
of the earth, led to the invention of the astronomical and 
civil month. The civil month is that artificial division of 
time by which the solar year is divided into twelve parts or 
months, named by Julius Caesar, and consisting of thirty or 
thirty-one days, with the exception of February, which con¬ 
tains twenty-eight, and every fourth year twenty-nine days. 

The year is the largest natural division of time. The most 
ancient annual measure of time appears to have consisted of 
twelve lunar months, amounting to 360 days. It is conjectured 
that this gave rise to the division of the ecliptic, which still 
continues in 360 equal parts or degrees. In the time of Julius 
Caesar, the year was reduced to such disorder that the winter 
months had fallen back to the autumn. To restore them to 


CHBONOLOGY. 


47 


their proper season, Caesar formed a year of 445 days, which 
has been styled the year of confusion. He afterwards insti¬ 
tuted a solar year of 365 days, six hours, which is now known 
by the name of the Julian year. 

In order to adjust this year to the annual revolution of 
the earth, which is six hours and some minutes more than 
365 days, a day was appointed to be intercalated every fourth 
year, in the month of February ; this day, from its position 
in the Roman calendar, was called bissextile. 

The Julian year, however, near as it approximated to the 
truth, was not the truth : the true time of the annual revo¬ 
lution of the sun in the ecliptic is 365 days, five hours, and 
nearly forty-nine minutes, which falls short by a few minutes 
of the time assumed by the Julian year. This difference may 
at a first glance appear trifling, but in the course of 131 years 
it amounted to a whole day. To remedy this defect, Pope 
Gregory XIII. caused the calendar to undergo another cor¬ 
rection. In A.D. 1580, he ordered ten days to be cut out of 
the month of October, so that the fourth was reckoned the 
fifteenth day; and to prevent such retrocession in future, in 
addition to the Julian regeneration with respect to the 
bissextile year, he ordered that the years 1600, 2000, 2400,. 
and every fourth century in succession, should have an inter¬ 
calation of a day; but that in other centuries, 1700, 1800, 
1900,2100, the day should be omitted, and those years remain 
common years. This regulation comes so near the truth, 
that the only correction it -will require will be the suppression 
of a day and a half in 5000 years. 

The following are some of the principal eras whence are 
dated all history and chronology :—I. Lustra. A period of 
five years, by which the Romans reckoned their time : it 
derived its name from a census instituted by Servius Tullius, 
which was to be paid every fifth year. II. The Olympiads 
consisted of four Grecian years: they derived their names 
from the public games instituted every fourth year at Pelo¬ 
ponnesus. They were instituted in honour of Jupiter, but 
when and by whom is unknown. After they had been 
neglected for some time, they were again instituted by 
Iphitus, king of Elis, B.C. 776, and it is from this date 
that Olympiads are reckoned in chronology. 

The Lunar Cycle .—A period of nineteen solar years; at 
the end of which, the sun and moon return to very nearly 
the same part of the heavens. 


48 


CHRONOLOGY—BIOGRAPHY. 


The Solar Cycle is a period of twenty-eight years; at the 
expiration of which, the sun returns to the sign and degree of 
the ecliptic which he had occupied at the conclusion of the 
preceding period, and the days of the week correspond to the 
same days of the month as at that time. 

The Cycle of Incliction consists of fifteen years, and is 
derived from the Romans. 

An Epoch is a certain point generally determined by some 
remarkable event, as the Deluge, the call of Abraham, the 
Argonautic expedition, &c. &c. 

The Era of the Seleucidee is reckoned from the establish¬ 
ment of Seleucus, one of Alexander’s generals. 

The Christian Era was invented by Dionysius, a Roman 
abbot, about the year 527. Many disputes exist among the 
learned as to the correctness of its data, some placing it at 
the birth of Christ, and others seven years before the com¬ 
mencement of the era. 

The Hegira , or Mahomedan Era , is founded upon the 
flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, to escape the 
persecution of his enemies, and is computed by his followers 
from A.D. 622. 


BIOGRAPHY. 

Biography is a section of history, being a record or memo¬ 
rial of the lives of individuals, and is a most instructive and 
interesting branch of study. The following are some of the 
principal personages of whom it takes notice :— 

Inventors and Discoverers. —Pythagoras, who lived 500 years before 
Christ, first taught that the sun was the centre of the universe. Galileo 
was born in 15G4, died 1612 : he first applied telescopes to astronomical 
purposes. Sir Isaac Newton is generally considered to be the greatest 
genius that ever lived : he discovered the doctrine of universal attraction. 
Sir W. Herschel Avas originally a drummer’s boy: he was born at Hanover, 
1738, —died at Slough, near Windsor, 1822. He discovered the Georgium 
Sidus. James Watt, a civil engineer, Avas born at Greenock, 1736; he 
may almost be styled the inventor of the steam engine: he died in 
1819. James Brindley, a native of Derbyshire, and an eminent mechanic, 
Avas born 1716, and died 1772. Canal navigation oAves its origin to his 
inventive and enterprising genius. John Guttemburg Avas born at 
Mentz, in 1400, and died 1467. William Caxton, the first English printer, 
Avas born 1412, he died 1491. Sir Richard Arkwright, born at Preston, 
Lancashire, 1732, is celebrated for the invention of machinery for spin¬ 
ning cotton : he died at Cromford, Derbyshire, 1792. Christopher 
Colon, or Columbus, discovered America in the year 1492, under the 
auspices of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. The spot on Avhich he 
first landed Avas Guanhani, or Cat Island, one of the Bahamas : he Avas 
born at Genoa, 1442, and died 1506. 

Divines .—John Wicliff, the first English Reformer, Avas a native of 
Yorkshire. He entered into holy orders, and obtained the rectory of 


BIOGRAPHY—GEOGRAPHY, 


49 


Lutterworth, Leicestershire. He translated the Bible, and died in 
peace, 1384. Martin Luther, an eminent German Reformer, was born 
at Isleben, 1483, and died 1546. The other eminent opposers of the 
Papal power were—Huss, Calvin, Melancthon, Knox, and Cranmer. 

Anselm, Becket, and Wolsey, were three haughty prelates: Anselm 
lived in Henry the First’s reign ; Becket, in Henry the Second’s; and 
Wolsey, in Henry the Eighth’s. Nicholas Breakspear was the only 
Englishman that ever succeeded to the Popedom. He assumed the 
title of Adrian the Fourth, and was choked by a fly in 1159, in the fifth 
year of his pontificate. George Fox, founder of the sect of Christians 
called Friends or Quakers, was born at Drayton, Leicestershire, 1624, 
and died 1690. 

Poets. —Homer lived 907 years before Christ: he w r rote the Iliad, 
recounting the actions of the Greeks at the siege of Troy; and the 
Odyssey, containing the wanderings of Ulysses after the taking of the 
city. Virgil, the most eminent of the Roman poets, was born seventy 
years before Christ; his most celebrated poem was the Hinead. Milton 
was born in London, 1608; his grand work of Paradise Lost was com¬ 
posed when he was blind ; he died in penury, 1674. William Shakspeare, 
the prince of dramatists, was born at Stratford-upon-Avon, 1564: he 
composed thirty-six plays, and died 1616. 

The principal Painters and Sculptors were—Phidias, Apelles, Raphael 
Michael Angelo, Titian, Domenichino, Teniers, Tintoretto, Sir Peter 
Lely, Murillo, the Palmas, James Barry, Sir Christopher Wren, William 
Hogarth, Sir Joshua Reynolds, Benjamin West, Sir Thomas Lawrence, 
Canova, John Flaxman. 

Warriors. —Saladin, an Egyptian Sultan, was born 1113, and died 1192. 
He w T as engaged with the Christian powers in the Crusades. Before he 
expired, he ordered his winding-sheet to be carried through every street 
in Damascus, and a crier to proclaim, with a loud voice—“ This is all 
that remains of the mighty Saladin, Conqueror of the East.” Sesostris, 
Cyrus, Alexander, Jenghis Khan, Attila, Alaric, Buonaparte, were the 
most eminent foreign conquerors. The most eminent of the British 
are—Duke of Marlborough, Oliver Cromwell, General Wolfe, Sir John 
Moore, Lord Nelson, Duke of Wellington. 

Historians. —Rapin, a French writer on English history. Rollin, a 
French professor, author of an invaluable work on ancient history. 
David Hume, author of the History of England. Edward Gibbon, 
author of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. William Mitford, 
the historian of Greece ; and the not less important names of Robertson, 
Gillies, Ferguson, Milner, Mosheiirf, and Goldsmith. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

Geography is one of the most extensive of the sciences, 
frequently including not only the representation or descrip¬ 
tion of the earth, but all the circumstances of its philosophy 
and history. 

Geography generally admits of five divisions :—T. Mathe¬ 
matical geography is the consideration of the earth, a solid 
piece of matter of a certain form and bulk: it teaches the 
method of finding certain plans on its surface, of determining 
distances, and representing the whole part in pictures. II. 


E 



60 


GEOGRAPHY, 


Physical goography describes the whole natural history of 
the earth, the land, and water, of which it is composed, the 
atmosphere surrounding the earth, the animals and plants 
which live and grow upon it. III. Descriptive geography is 
a knowledge of the shape of all portions of land and Avater, 
and their relative situation on the globe. IV. Civil geography 
informs us as to the distribution of the human race, the forms 
of society, and the classes, habits, manners, and customs of 
the human race. V. Progressive geography is the history of 
the changes which have taken place in regard to the local 
distribution of nations over the earth. 


POPULATION AND EXTENT OF THE GLOBE. 



BALBI GEOGB., 1844- 

WEIMAR ALMANAC, 1840. 


Po ulation. 

English 

Square 

Miles- 

Population 
i to Square 

| Mile. 

Population. 

English 

Square 

Miles. 

Population 

to Square 

Mile. 

Europe . 

227,700,000 

3,700,000 

61-5 

233,240,043 

3,807,195 

61-2 

Asia . 

390,000,000 

16,045.000 

24-3 

608,516,019 

17,805,146 

34-2 

Africa. 

60,000,000 

11,254,000 

5-3 

101,498,411 

11,617,428 

8-6 

America. 

39,000,000 

14,730,000 

2-6 

48,007,150 

13,542,400 

3-5 

Oceanica (Aus- 
tralia,’Polynesia, 
and the Indian 
Archipelago).... 

20,300,000 

4,105,000 

4-9 

1,838,194 

3,347,840 

0-4 

Totals.... 

737,000,000 

49,834,000 

14-8 

993,099,817 

50,150,009 

19-8 


POPULATION OF CITIES, 

ACCORDING TO THE LATEST RETURNS. 


Alexandria 




60,000 

Amsterdam - 




207,000 

Antwerp - 



mm 

75,000 

Athens 




26,237- 

Berlin 



mm 

290,797 

Berne 




20,500 

Bombay - 



m 

230,000 

Brussels 




107,000 

Calcutta - 



m 

230,000 

Christiania - 




25,000 

Constantinople 



mm 

500,000 

Copenhagen - 




122,000 

Dublin - 



mm 

275,000 

Edinburgh - 




160,000 

Florence - 

- 


mm 

99,400 

Genoa 




115,500 

Hamburgh 

- 


- 

128,000 

Jerusalem - 




10,000 

London - 



- 

1,870.727 


Leipsic - 

- 


- 

47,500 

Lisbon 

Madrid - 




280,000 

236,000 

Morocco 
Mexico - 

_ 



80,000 

137,000 

Munich 

Naples - 

m 


. 

108,537 

350,000 

New York - 
New Orleans 

. 



340,000 

40,272 

Paris 

Petersburg 




909,126 

469,720 

Pekin 

Prague - 

. 



2,000,000 

120,000 

Palermo 

Rome 




140,000 

148,903 

Stockholm - 
Stuttgart 




83,883 

38,500 

Turin 

Vienna - 

mm 



104,000 

333,000 
































GEOGRAPHY. 


51 


The following is a table of the lengths of the principal 
mountain chains of our world :— 


MILES. 

The Andes.4,500 

Mexican and Rocky Moun¬ 
tains .. .. .. 7,000 

Whole American Chain .. 11,500 

Ural . 1,500 

Atlas .. .. .. .. 1,500 


MILES. 

Dofrafield .. ., 1,000 

Allegany. 900 

Alps .. .. .. 600 to 700 

Appenines .. .. 700 

Carpathian .. .. 500 

Pyranees. 200 


Volcanoes are burning mountains, having an opening called a crater, 
whence fire, or smoke and fire, constantly issue. The oldest volcanoes 
known are Vesuvius in Italy, and Etna in Sicily. In the Lipari Isles, 
is Stromboli, the only mountain that burns without ceasing. The num¬ 
ber of volcanoes is estimated at about 200. 


Table of the heights of mountains , in English feet , above 
the level of the sea :— 


Name. 

Country. 

Height 

in feet. 

Atlas - 

Africa - 

12,500 

Ararat - 

Armenia • 

12,700 

lien Lomond 

Scotland 

3,2-40 

Ben Lavers . 

Ditto 

4,015 

Ben Nevis - 

Ditto 

4,380 

Cheviots - 

England * 

2,658 

Cader Idris 

Wales - 

2,914 

Cotopaxi 

S. America 

18,862 

Chimborazo 

Ditto 

21,451 

Dliawlegeri - 

Asia - 

28,077 

Etna - 

Sicily - 

10,946 

Egmont - 

New Zealand 

15,304 

Fmsterliorn 

Alps 

14,096 

Grimsel - 

Ditto - 

9,695 

Hecla 

Iceland - 

5,000 


Name- 

Country. 

Height 

in feet. 

Jungfrau . 

Alps . 

13,725 

Libanus . 

Syria , 

9,526 

Magillicuddy 

Reeks 

Ireland . .- 

3,404 

Mont Blanc . 

Switzerland 

15,630 

Mont Rosa 

Ditto 

15,555 

Mont Perdu . 

France. 

11,283 

Otalieite Mount 

Otalieite . 

10,895 

Ortler Spitz 

Tyrol . 

14,927 

Skiddaw 

England . 

3,022 

Snowdon . 

Wales . 

3,578 

Stelvio Pass • 

Tyrol . . 

9,272 

Teneriffe, 

Peak of . 

Teneriffe 

12,351 

Vesuvius 

Italy. 

5,731 


The following are the ancient names of some of the most 


distinguished places in the world :—• 

England . Albion. Norway and Sweden, Scandinavia. 

London . Londinwm. ! Transylvania . Dacia. 

Wales . Cambria. I Sclavonia. Pannonia. 

Scotland . Caledonia. 

Ireland. Hibernia or Icrne 

The Popedom.. Latium Umbria 
Picenum. 

Bavaria . Rhcetia. 

France. Gallia. 

Albania. Eporus. 

Romania . Thracia. 

Morea . Peloponnesus 

Tunis. Numidia. 

Corsica. Cyrnus. 

Malta. T . Melita. 

Paris. Lutctia. 

Candia . Creta . 

Spain. Hispania or Iberia 

Portugal. Lusitania. 

Switzerland .... Helvetia. 

Holland . Batavia. 

Russia. SarmaUa. 

Anglesea .. Mona. 

Constantinople .... Byzantium. 
Shetland and the 

Orkneys. Thule. 








































52 


GEOGRAPHY. 


LENGTH OF El VERS. 


River. 

Mouth. 

Course. 

Length in 
English 
Miles. 

Amazon 


Atlantic Ocean • 

South America 

3380 

Amur. 

, 

Pacific Ocean 

Russia in Asia 

2150 

Arkansas . 

• 

Mississippi River 

North America 

1730 

1 )ouro. 

• 

Atlantic Ocean . 

Portugal and Spain 

400 

Dnieper 

• 

Black Sea . 

Russia .... 

1140 

Danube 

• 

Ditto . 

Germany and Austria . 

1760 

Elbe . 

• 

North Sea . 

Austria and Prussia . 

670 

Euphrates . 

• 

Persian Gulf 

Turkey.... 

1900 

Enisei 

• 

Arctic Sea . 

China, & Russia in Asia 

2340 

Ganges ./ 

• 

Beng-al Bay 

Hindostan . 

1550 

Hohango . 

• 

Pacific Ocean 

China .... 

2625 

Indus . 


Indian Ocean 

Hindostan . 

1630 

Loire . 


Biscay Bay. 

France .... 

545 

Lena . 

• 

Arctic Sea . 

Russia in Asia 

2370 

Lawrence, St. 


Atlantic 

North America . 

2340 

Mississippi. 

. 

Mexico Gulf 

Ditto .... 

3300 

Nile . 

. 

Mediterranean . 

Egypt .... 

2600 

Niger. 


Atlantic 

Africa .... 

2000 

Ohio • 


Mississippi River 

North America 

1188 

Orinoco 

, 

Atlantic 

South America 

1480 

Obi . 

# 

Arctic Ocean 

China .... 

2550 

Potomac 


Chesapeake Bay 

North America 

410 

Po 

# 

Adriatic 

Italy .... 

410 

Parana 


Plate River 

South America 

1500 

Plate . 


Atlantic 

Ditto .... 

2130 

Rhone 


Mediterranean . 

Switzerland and France 

460 

Rhine 


North Sea . 

Germany 

810 

Schelde 

, 

Ditto . 

Netherlands 

170 

Shannon 


Atlantic 

Ireland.... 

200 

Seine . 


English Channel 

France .... 

425 

Susquehana 

• 

Atlantic 

North America . 

620 

Senegal 

, 

Ditto 

Africa .... 

950 

Thames 


North Sea . 

England 

215 

Tagus 


Atlantic 

Spain and Portugal 

550 

Tigris 

• 

Euphrates River 

Turkey in Asia . 

1000 

Vistula 

. 

Baltic Sea . 

Austria 

640 

Volga . 

• 

Caspian Sea 

Russia 

2035 

Ynngtsekiang 

• 

Pacific Ocean 

Thibet and China 

2990 


PROPORTION OF LAND TO THE ENTIRE AREA 


Of different Latitudinal Zones on the Earth's Surface. 


Land,—Northern Hemisphere. 

Pro. Sq. Miles. 
Arctic zone - 0 400 - 3,252,589 
Temperate zone 0-559 - 28,531,631 
Torrid zone - 0 297 - 11,628,440 


Total - 0-441 - 43,412,660. 


Land,—Southern Hemisphere. 

Pro. Sq. Miles. 

Antarctic zone 0-000 - -.. 

Temp, zone - 0 075 - 3,828,036 
Torrid zone - 0-312 - 12,215,735 

Total - 0-163 - 16,043,771 


The habitable terrestrial globe contains 37 673,000 square geographi¬ 
cal miles, of which it is probable that upwards of 20,000,000 are avail- 




























GEOGBArilY—TOPOGRAPHY. 


58 


able lor the subsistence of the human raco. In tho Uaiitcd Kingdom of 
Great Britain and Ireland, there are 1)1,000 square geographical miles, 
and on them food is now raised for nearly 30,000,000 of human beings. 
If, therefore, the whole world were peopled in the same proportion a 9 
the British Islands, there would be about 220 times as many inhabitants 
as there now are in the United Kingdom, or the globe would contain 
six thousand six hundred millions, being about eight times its present 
population. 

LENGTH OF A DEGREE OF THE MERIDIAN, AND OF A 
DEGREE OF LONGITUDE, 


AT EVERY TENTH DEGREE OF LATITUDE. 


Degree of Meridian. 

Degree of Longitude. 

Lat. 


Feet. 


Miles. 

Feet. 

Miles. 

0 

- 

362,734 

• 

08-70 

305,152 

0910 

10 

• 

302,843 

• 

68-72 

359,610 

0811 

20 

- 

303,158 

• 

08-78 

343,263 

6501 

30 

- 

303,041 

• 

68-87 

316,493 

59-94 

40 

- 

364,233 

- 

68-98 

280,106 

53.05 

50 

- 

304,802 

- 

6910 

235,171 

44-54 

GO 

- 

305,454 

• 

69-21 

183,029 

3467 

70 

- 

305,937 

- 

09-31 

125,254 

2372 

80 

- 

300,252 

• 

69-30 

63,612 

1205 

90 

- 

300,366 

• 

69-39 

. 0 

0 


TOPOGRAPHY. 

Topography merely implies the history of a district or 
locality, a parish, a town, a city, a county : it is sometimes 
called CnouoGRAPiiY. The following table of the derivation 
of names of places in British topography may materially 
assist the reader in understanding their history. 

Ab, in the beginning of names of places, is generally a contraction of 
abbot, and denotes that an abbot or monastery formerly existed there; 
as Abingdon—Abbey Town. 

Ac or ak, from the Saxon ac, signifying an oak; thus, Acton in Mid¬ 
dlesex, is Oak Town, or a town surrounded with oaks. 

Al or aid, implies old or ancient; thus, Aldborough means Old 
Borough ; Aldgate, Old Gate. 

Brad , from the Saxon broad; thus, Bradford was originally Broad 
Ford. 

Bourn, or burn, signifies a river; hence several towns which stand on 
a river or stream are simply called bourn, or have it in their composi¬ 
tion ; as Ravensbourn, Bannockbourn. 

Brig or brix, from the Saxon bridge ; as Stockbridge, Brixton. 

Burgh, implies a city, town, or castle ; as Edinburgh— Bury has the 
same meaning, as St. Edmond’s bury. 

Den, dean, signifying either a vale or any woody places; hence, Mor- 
den, Dean Mitchell. 

Ford, a stream which maybe passed on foot; thus, Deptford, a stream 
deep in the ford. 

Ham, is a farm, house, or village; as Addingham, &c. From this 
come our English words home and hamlet . 

E 3 











54 


TOPOGRAPHY—ENGINEERING. 


Holms, from the Saxon, is a spot surrounded by water, or a little 
island; hence we find several places called the Holmes. 

Hurst, a wood or forest; as Midhurst, Sandhurst, &c. 

Lade, means to unload, and generally signifies the mouth of a river, 
either where it meets the sea or some great river; as Cricklade, &c. 

Mere, implies the name of a lake or pond, and is found in the names 
of many places; as Haslemere, &c. 

Minster is a contraction for monastery; as Westminster. 

Rig, ridge, signify a bank; hence the phrase, a ridge of hills; and this 
is denoted in the names where it is found ; as Pentndge, Dorsetshire. 

Stan, a stone; as Stanstone—Stony Town, Stony Race. 

Thorp, a village; as Langthorpe, a long village. 

Ton or tun, always signifies a town. 

Wold, a plain open country; as Ringwold. 

It may, perhaps, with safety be said, that there is not a 
spot of ground in England that is not remarkable for some 
historical association or natural peculiarity. Blackheath, in 
Kent, is celebrated as the place where Wat Tyler and Jack 
Cade mustered their motley armies : where the great battle 
was fought between Henry YIT. and Lord Audley; and the 
spot where the citizens of London met Henry Y. returning 
from the battle of Agincourt. It is likewise remarkable for 
its cave, in which the Danes lay concealed in the time of 
Alfred. 

Naseby, in Northamptonshire, celebrated for the decisive 
battle fought there, is supposed to be the highest ground in 
the kingdom ; thirty-nine parish churches may be seen from 
one station. Albany, north of Argyle, is the highest part of 
Scotland. 

There are as many counties in England and Wales as there 
are weeks in the year. The largest county is Yorkshire: 
the smallest is Rutlandshire ; and the most central, Warwick¬ 
shire. Coventry is said to be the most central town. Nor¬ 
thamptonshire is touched by nine counties, Cornwall only by 
one. 

Derbyshire is generally considered the inost interesting of 
the English counties. The Peak is one of the most celebrated 
of the numerous marvels which meet the eye. There is a 
remarkable cave or opening on the side of the Peak, nearly 
in the form of a Gothic arch ; it is chequered with a diversity 
of coloured stones, from which water drops, and stalactites 
are formed. 

ENGINEERING, 

strictly speaking, is the art of managing engines ; but latterly 
it has been applied, not only to that art, but to all manu¬ 
facturing and building operations in which engines are 


ENGINEERING—RELIGION. 


55 


employed. It is customary to divide it into two branches— 
Military and Civil. ‘ Military engineering ’—we abridge from 
Brande—‘ implies a knowledge of the construction and main¬ 
tenance of fortifications, and all buildings necessary in 
military posts ; and bence includes a thorough instruction 
on every point relative to the attack and defence of places. 
The science also embraces the surveying of a country for the 
various operations of war, and consequently an acquaintance 
with mathematics and facility in drawing. Civil engineering, 
as the name implies, does not include those branches above 
mentioned which specially belong to the art of war ; but 
relates to the forming of roads and bridges, railroads, the 
construction of machinery for all purposes, the formation of 
canals, aqueducts, harbours, drainage of a country, &c. 

To give the faintest outline of the science of practical 
engineering, would be to write treatises on mathematics, me¬ 
chanics, hydraulics, hydrostatics, and the other branches of 
natural philosophy ; the reader must therefore seek for infor¬ 
mation under the separate heads of science involved in it.’ 
To this we may add, that the science is indeed so vast, as to 
render it necessary for an individual to restrict himself to 
some special department, as mining, water, bridges, railways, 
&c., by which means more accurate and satisfactory results 
are most likely to be obtained. 

RELIGION. 

The word religion is derived from the Latin word religio , 
a sacred oath or obligation—but that which it signifies is the 
duty of man in his relation to God in all countries and in 
every age. By Paganism, is intended the worship of many 
gods : it is a system of Polytheism : it is derived from the 
Latin Paga> a village; the heathens who refused to proselyte 
to Christianity were so styled by the Christians, because, 
when Constantine established Christianity in the Eastern 
Empire, they fled to the villages, where they might uninter¬ 
ruptedly worship their gods and idols. 

The Mahomedan religion is derived from Mahomet , who 
in the seventh century pretended to be a new prophet from 
God. The Koran, which was composed by this impostor, 
embraces the whole of the Mahomedan religion: it is written 
in the purest Arabic, and contains 3000 verses. Mahomet 
was a great scourge to Christianity : he extended his religion 
chiefly by the sword. The Koran contains tales and fables 


56 


RELIGION. 


moro ridiculous than many of the most preposterous mytho¬ 
logies : the most ridiculous and profane is the account of Ma¬ 
homet’s tour to Heaven, accompanied by the angel Gabriel. 

Hindooism is the most debasing and degrading of the 
numerous systems of idolatry ; the worship is sensual, im¬ 
pure, and cruel: and, strange to say, the Hindoo Mythology 
contains no less than 330,000,000 deities. 

Christianity, as its name imports, was founded by Jesus 
Christ; and very shortly after its establishment it was divi¬ 
ded into two great bodies, called the Greek and Roman 
Churches ; the Greek Church was established in Russia, Asia, 
and Greece, and is still professed in those countries : the 
Romish Church spread its influence over the western parts 
of Europe ; some errors which appear to have crept into that 
church were exposed by Luther, Cranmer, Melancthon, Cal¬ 
vin, and others. The religious opinions held by these divines 
spread over the Continent, and many individuals adopted 
them, and those who adopted them were called Protestants, 
from the fact of their protesting against the errors of Popery. 

The Protestants are subdivided as follows :— Lutherans , or 
followers of Luther ; Calvinists , or followers of Calvin ; Ar- 
minians, or followers of Arminius ; Socinians , or followers of 
Socinus ; Presbyterians , who deny the authority of bishops, 
and whose ecclesiastical affairs are conducted by a Presbytery, 
or Synod, consisting of the elders of the church ; Indepen¬ 
dents , who form in themselves a distinct church ; Baptists , 
who disapprove of infant baptism ; Quakers, who have no 
external religious ceremonies; Unitarians , who deny the 
doctrine of the Trinity ; Wesleyans , who adopt the principles 
of the Rev. John Wesley. To these might be added many 
others, too numerous indeed to mention. 

Deism signifies a belief in God, but acknowledges no reve¬ 
lation of his will; and in China and Japan, it implies the 
worship of one God, but debased by many superstitions and 
idolatries. 

Christians found their faith on the Scriptures, or the 
writings of the Apostles and Evangelists of Christ; Mahome- 
dans on the Koran, a book which was written in a cave by an 
apostate Jew, at the dictation of Mahomed; Chinese, on the 
writings of Confucius. It is calculated that in religion about 
four men are Pagans, two Mahomcdans, and one Christian. 

There are thirty-nine books in the Old Testament, but the Jews 
divide them into twenty-two, corresponding’ with the letters of their 


RELIGION, 


57 


alphabet, fourteen in the Apocrypha, and twenty in the New Testament, 
The oldest version of the Old and New Testament belonging to the 
Christians, is that in the Vatican Library, at Rome, written in the 
fourth or fifth century. The Liturgy or Book of Common Prayers, was 
established by Parliament, 1559, and the present version of the Bible 
was executed by forty-seven translators, in the reign of James I. 


THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND. 


Dignitaries and Ministers 
of the Church. 

(From the Clergy List for ISIS.) 


2 Archbishops 
25 Bishops 
29 Deans 
58 Archdeacons 


355 Prebends 
291 Canons 
10,784 Incumbents 
4,837 Curates 


In some instances these dignities are 
held by the same individual. 

Patronage of the Church. 

(From the Ecclesiastical Commissioners’ 
Report.) 

In the gift of the Crown . . 952 

,, Archbps. & Bishops 1,248 

„ Deans and Chapters 787 

,, Dignitaries . . . 1,851 

,, Universities and 

Hospitals . . . 721 

„ MunicipalCorporations 53 
„ Private Owners . . 5,096 


10,708 

As the patronage is frequently divided 
between different classes of patrons, this 
table will not agree with the number of 
benefices. 


Value of Benefices. 


Under £10 .. 

£10 and under £20 .. 


20 

M 

30 .. 

* 

30 

M 

50 .. 


50 

rt 

100 .. 

• 

100 

M 

150 .. 

• 

150 

M 

200 .. 


200 

M 

300 .. 

• 

300 

M 

400 .. 


400 

>0 

500 .. 

• 

500 

M 

750 .. 

• 

750 

%» 

1000 .. 

• 

1000 

>» 

1500 .. 

• 

1500 


2000 .. 

• 


I'JVU > j • • 

2000 and upwards 


4843—Rectory of Stanhope 
N orthumberland 


7306—Rectory of Doddington, 
Cambridgeshire 
Sinecure Rectories, averaging 
£275 each 


No Returns .. 


11 

19 

32 

235 

1,629 

1,602 

1,354 

1,979 

1,326 

830 

954 

323 

134 

32 

16 


1 


1 


62 

178 


Incumbents. 

Total Resident Incumbents . 

Non Resident:— 

Residing on other Benefices ... • 

Non Resident, without licence or exemption 
Want or unfitness of Parsonage house 
Infirmity or illness .... ... • 

Filling public offices .... .... 

Miscellaneous .... .... .... 

Miscellaneous cases, vacancies, &c. 


5,859 


1,878 

937 

647 

369 

279 

197 

- 4,307 

576 


10,742 


The Liturgy was established by Parliament in 1559, being revised by 
Whitehead. The oldest version of the Old and New Testament, is that 
in the Vatican, published in 1587. The Latin translation of the New 
Testament was made by Jerome, in 405. Our division oi the Bible into 
chapters was made by Archbishop Langton, and perfected by Robert 
Stephens. 










58 


GRAMMAR. 

Grammar is the art of speaking or writing in any language 
with propriety : it is divided into four parts— Orthography , 
which teaches the nature and powers of letters, and the just 
method of spelling words ; Etymology, which treats of the 
different orders of words, their various modifications and de¬ 
rivations ; Syntax , which treats of the proper arrangement 
and connection of words in a sentence ; and Prosody, which 
teaches the true pronunciation of words, comprising accent, 
quantity, emphasis, pause, and tone, with the measure of the 
verses. There are nine parts of speech—I. Article: a word 
put before a noun to show the extent of its meaning. II. 
Noun: the name of any person, place, or thing. III. Adjec¬ 
tive : a word which expresses the quality of a noun. IY. 
A Pronoun : a word used instead of a noun. Y. A Verb : 
a word which expresses being, doing, or suffering. YI. An 
Adverb: a word joined to a verb, an adjective, or another 
adverb, to express some quality or circumstance of time and 
place. YII. A Preposition : a word put before norms and 
pronouns, to show the relation between them. YIII. A 
Conjunction: a word which joins words and sentences toge¬ 
ther. IX. An Interjection: a word which expresses some 
emotion of the speaker. 

These nine kinds of words, or parts of speech, compose 
most languages : there are in the English language about 
25,000 nouns, 40 pronouns, 9,200 adnouns or adjectives, 
8,000 verbs, 2,600 adverbs, 69 prepositions, 19 conjunctions, 
68 interjections, and 2 articles. 

The alphabets of different nations contain the following 
numbers of letters :—English, 26 ; French, 23 ; Italian, 20 ; 
Spanish, 27 ; German, 26 ; Sclavonian, 27 ; Russian, 41 ; 
Latin, 22 ; Greek, 24 ; Hebrew, 22 ; Arabic, 28 ; Persian, 
32 ; Turkish, 33 ; Sanscrit, 50; Chinese, 214. The inven¬ 
tion of letters, by combining which all sounds could be repre¬ 
sented, is ascribed to some wise Phoenician or Egyptian, in 
the reign of Cadmus, king of Thebes. 

Philology is a term employed to signify the study of 
the elements and philosophy of universal language and gram¬ 
mar. Language is the power of expressing thoughts, or 
communicating information concerning things past, present, 
and to come. This may bo done either to the oar or to the 
eye ; when the former, the mode of communication is by ar¬ 
ticulate sounds or words ; when the latter, by pictures or 


GEAMM AR—LOGIC. 


59 


characters, or pioturcs representing words or things. The 
number of languages and dialects in tho world arc 3014 : of 
these 587 aro European ; 937 Asiatic ; 226 African ; 1264 
American. Tho number of words derived from other lan¬ 
guages in the English are—Greek, 1288; Latin, 6621; Saxon, 
2060 ; German, 117 ; French, 361; Dutch, 600; Italian, 
529 ; Welsh, 111 ; Spanish, 83 ; Danish, 81; Arabic, 18. 

LOGIC. 

Logic is that branch of science which teaches us to think 
and to reason with propriety. There are five rules which 
logicians lay down in order to enable the student to do this : 
the first point is, that the mind should obtain a clear and dis¬ 
tinct knowledge of things divested from all confused and ob¬ 
scure notions. II. The mind should obtain a complete and 
ample survey of subjects or objects in all their parts. III. 
The mind should grasp comprehensively all the properties and 
relations, occasionally attributes, and accidental modes of sub¬ 
jects and things. IY. The mind should conceive of things 
extensively, searching through all the orders, and characters, 
and complexions, which diverge from the one original point. 
And, lastly, things should be apprehended in their purpose, 
order, and method, by which means the memory will be 
assisted, and the judgment more easily formed. 

Method is analytical or 'synthetical. Analytical method 
resolves the compound into its principles, and the whole into 
its parts. Synthetical begins with the parts, and leads to a 
whole, or it puts together the principles, and forms a com¬ 
pound. The Arguments are either metaphysical, physical, 
moral, mechanical* or theological, according to the science or 
subject from whence they are drawn. I. The Argumentum 
ad judicium is an appeal to the common sense of mankind. 
II. The Argumentum adjidem i3 an appeal to the faith. III. 
The Argumentum ad hominum is an appeal to the practises or 
professed principles of the adversary. IY. The Argumentum 
ad populum is an appeal to the people. Y. The Argumentum 
ex concessu is when something is proved by means of a point 
previously conceded. VI. The Argumentum ad passiones is 
an appeal to the passions. VII. The Argumentum a fortiori 
forms the conclusion, by proving a less probable proposition 
on which the conclusion depends. VIII. Argumentum ad 
ignorantiam is founded upon insufficient principles, which 
the opponent has not skill to refute. IX. Argumentum ad 


60 


LOGIC—POETBY 


verecundiam is drawn from authority we are ashamed to 
dispute. X. A direct argument is that which immediately 
proceeds to tlie point in question. XI. An indirect argument 
forms tlie conclusion, by proving or discovering some pro¬ 
position upon which the conclusion depends. Demonstrations 
are a succession of propositions, beginning with self-evident 
truths, and advancing to those which are more remote. 
Corollaries are self-evident inferences, from established pro¬ 
positions. Sophistry is a train of false and artful reasoning 
grounded upon erroneous principles, or an ambiguity of terms. 
Analogy is an argument, in which, from corresponding causes, 
are deduced corresponding effects. A Syllogism is a sentence 
made up of three propositions, so disposed as that the last is 
necessarily inferred from those that precede it, thus :— 

“ That which thinks cannot be material. 

The mind thinks. 

Therefore, the mind cannot be material.” 

All arguments are series of syllogisms; and although they 
do not retain their syllogistic form in ordinary discourse, all 
arguments may be reduced to syllogisms and sophisms, and 
will thus be detected. 


POETRY. 

Poetry is the language of the heart, and the language of 
nature, and poetry in its own perfection is most generally 
found in minds^of rude barbarians, who, like the Northern 
and Southern Americans, inhabit the Avild woods and moun¬ 
tain solitudes of an uncultivated world. There are several 
sorts of poetry. The Epic instructs under the allegory of 
some heroic action ; the Odyssey, the Iliad, and the JEnead, 
are the finest specimens of that style of writing. Tragedy 
aimed to inspire a horror for guilt, and a love of virtue : 
Eschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles, excel in this style. 
Comedy blends together expressions and incidents, which 
give to the poem a tone of humour ; its original intention 
w T as to ridicule vice a<nd folly. The Ode is an inspiring strain, 
which, while it celebrates the exploits of eminent men, rouses 
the mind to imitate as well as admire. The Elegy is a soft 
and dirge-like strain ; it calls up feelings of tenderness for 
those whom Ave have loved when living, and mourn Avhen 
dead. There are various rhymes and orders of versification; 
they are divided into feet; there are eight kinds. I. The 
Spondee , which is composed of two long syllables, as soft 


POETRY—RHETORIC. 


61 


hearts , bright stars. II. The Iambus , which is composed of 
a short syllable before a long one, of an unaccentuated syllable 
before an accentuated one, as resume . III. The Trochee , 
which is composed of a long syllable before a short one, or an 
accentuated before an unaccentuated one, as treasure. IV. 
The Pyrric , which is composed of two short syllables, as in the 
highest heavens. Y. The Dactyl , is composed of a long or 
accented syllable beforo two short ones, as loveliness. VI. 
The Anapcesty which is composed of a long or accented syllable 
after two short ones, as immature. VII. The Amphibrach , 
is composed of a long syllable between two short ones, as 
delightful. VIII. The Tribrach , which is composed of three 
short syllables, as numerable. 

RHETORIC. 

It has been stated that every man may be an orator; cer¬ 
tainly that is saying too much: it is, however, equally true, 
that many or most of the difficulties which oppose a clear¬ 
ness of voice and an elegance of diction, may be overcome by 
patience and perseverance. Demosthenes, the greatest orator 
our world ever produced, laboured under the greatest diffi¬ 
culties whieh nature could possibly inflict, but ho conquered 
them all. 

The student of elocution must be careful in his articulation; 
that is, he must give a clear, full, and deliberate utterance to 
the several simple and complex sounds; and he must then 
be careful that his pronunciation, which is an extension and 
application of the articulation, be correct, elegant, and 
uniform. Then let the inflections be attended to; they tend 
materially to the beauty of a speech or discourse : a few 
important inflections are here subjoined. 

The rising inflection followed by the falling'. 

You must not say elocution', but elocution'. 

You must not say incomprehensible', but incomprehensible'. 

You must not say dictatorial', but dictatorial'. 

Did he do it correctly', or incorrectly'. 

Did he speak distinctly', or indistinctly'. 

The falling followed by the rising. 

We should say fable', not fable'. 

We should say impertinent', not impertinent'. 

We should say soliloquy', not soliloquy'. 

We should say infidel', not infidel'. 

He was rational', not irrational'. 

Action should be natural: no law can give powor and 
beauty to speech, unless the speaker enter into the spirit, and 

2 ? 


62 


RHETORIC — HERALDRY. 


feel tlie intent, of what he reads or says. Action is of the 
utmost importance in rhetoric. “ Action,” says Shakspeare, 
“ is eloquence, and the eyes of tlie vulgar are more learned 
than their ears the great secret of speaking well, is 
earnestness, to make every word one’s own, and to speak 
under their impression. Action should be easy, or it will be 
ungraceful; it should be strong, or it will have no weight. 

HERALDRY. 

Heraldry is a science neither useful nor necessary, being 
purely ornamental. As a study, how r ever, it is both interest¬ 
ing and amusing ; its object is to place marks of hereditary 
distinction on individuals and families, or to inquire into the 
history of such badges and designations of distinction; it 
has a language entirely its own ; every colour, every figure it 
employs, are or were symbolical. Radges and emblems on 
shields and helmets appear to have been used amongst the 
most ancient nations. Xenophon mentions them among the 
Greeks ; Suetonius, among the Romans ; Tacitus, among the 
Germans. Heraldry w r as first regulated to a system wdien 
the tournay became common in Europe; we find no monu¬ 
ment or tomb ornamented with escutcheons prior to the 
eleventh century. The most ancient monument of this kind is 
said to be the monument of Valmond, Count of Vagsesburg, 
in the church of Emmeran, at Ratisbon. The first Pope who 
can be proved to have had a coat of arms, is Boniface VIII., 
who filled the papal see from 1294 to 1303. All the earlier 
papal arms are the fanciful inventions of later historians. The 
colours used in the science of heraldry are generally red, blue, 
black, green, purple, termed in this science, gules, azure, sable, 
vest, and purpure; gellotv and white, termed or and argente, 
are metals. Arms are distinguished by different names, to 
denote the causes of their bearing: they are as follows :—I. 
Arms of Dominion, those which emperors, kings, and sove¬ 
reign states constantly wear, being annexed to the kingdoms, 
territories, and provinces they possess ; thus the three lions 
are the arms of England, the house of Ireland, &c. II. Arms 
of Pubension, are those of a kingdom and province, to which 
a prince or lord has some claim, and which he therefore 
quarters with his arms, although such kingdoms may be 
possessed by a foreign lord. III. Arms of Concession, or 
augmentation of honour, are either entire arms, or else one 
or more figures given by princes as a reward for some extra- 


HERALDRY—TYPOGRAPHY. 


63 


ordinary services. IV. Arms of Community , are those of 
bishoprics, cities, universities, societies, companies, and 
other bodies corporate. V. Arms of Patronage , are such as 
governors of provinces, lords of manors, patrons of benefices, 
&c., add to their family arms, as a token of their superiority, 
rights, and jurisdiction ; these arms have introduced into 
heraldry, castles, gates, harrows, ploughs, wheels, racks, &c. 
VI. Arms of Family , or paternal arms, are those that belong 
to one particular family that distinguish it from others, and 
which no person is suffered to assume. VII. Arms of Alliance, 
are those which families or private persons take up and join 
to their own, to denote the alliance they have contracted by 
marriage. VIII. Arms of Succession , are such as are taken 
up by those who inherit certain estates, honours, &c., either 
by will, entail, or donation. The ornaments of heraldry are 
crowns and diadems, the helmet, mantlings, the cap of state, 
the wreath, the crest, the motto, the supporters. 

TYPOGRAPHY. 

By typography is meant the arranging of the types for the 
press, and it involves the history of the process of printing. 
Printing is the most important step in science, because it 
renders every branch of knowledge, science, and art, simple 
and intelligible. There are three kinds of printing ; the one 
from moveable letters, for books ; another from copper-plates, 
for prints ; and the last from blocks or wood-cuts : the first 
is called letter-press printing ; the second and third, rolling- 
press printing : the principal difference between the three 
consists in this, that the first is cast in relievos, in distinct 
pieces ; the second is engraved ; and the third cut in relievos 
on the surface of wooden blocks. The first duties connected 
with printing are those of the compositor, or setter up of the 
types : the business of the reader commences immediately 
after that of the compositor, and much of the credit of a 
printing office depends upon the care and accuracy with which 
the duties of this department are fulfilled. The composing- 
stick is a small iron or brass frame, one side of which is 
moveable, so that it may be adjusted to the required width of 
the page or column which the workman has to set up ; the 
practised compositor usually takes in a line or more at a 
glance, if the author writes in a clear and intelligible hand; 
one by one the compositor puts the letters into this stick, 
securing each letter with the thumb of his left hand, which is 

E 2 


64 


TYPOGEAPHY—POLITICAL ECONOMY. 


thcreforo constantly travelling on from tlie beginning to the 
end of tlie line ; his right hand goes mechanically to the box 
for the required letter; when the compositor arrives at the 
end of his line, he has a task to perform, in which he exhibits 
his skill—this is the equalizing his spacing, that is, adjusting 
the lines, so that they close with a word, or at any rate with 
a syllable, and this is done by varying the rate of thickness 
between each word. When the compositor has filled the 
composing-stick, he lifts the letters out into what is termed 
a galley, by grasping them with the fingers of each hand, and 
lifting them up as if they were a solid piece of metal. The 
facility with which some compositors can lift a handful, as it 
is termed, of moveable metal, is remarkable; this skill is only 
obtained by practice, and it is one of the severest mortifi¬ 
cations a printer’s prentice can undergo, to toil for an hour 
in picking up upwards of a thousand letters, then to see his 
fabric destroyed by his own unskilfulness. 

POLITICAL ECONOMY. 

Political economy is that science which explains the 
sources and distribution of national wealth; it inquires by 
what means a nation either has acquired or may acquire 
commercial prosperity, and enters into the cause of all those 
adverse circumstances which may sap its strength and great¬ 
ness ; the great means by which a nation’s prosperity is 
secured, is by labour and industry; they are the real springs 
of political economy, because they change the places, appear¬ 
ances, and qualities of bodies : it is the effect of labour that 
our country is so preferable to the wilds of North America; 
in England, two hundred and twenty persons live upon every 
equare mile; in the uncultivated parts of America, not one 
could live upon that space. Another accelerative to political 
economy, is trade and exchange. In the first stages of society, 
every man would not only have to plough and reap for 
himself, but would likewise have to make the instruments 
with which to plough and reap; and he would not feel this 
as a disadvantage, so long as he had plenty of time at his 
disposal; as in the course of a few years his time became 
more valuable, he would confine himself to agricultural pur¬ 
suits, and purchase his tools from some individual, who, for 
the same reason as himself, had abandoned them, namely, 
because either skill or taste dictated a different pursuit: 
this is not only the origin of all trade, but of the division of 


POLITICAL ECONOMY. 


65 


employment. But although barter is indispensable in the 
earlier stages of communities, it is a source of loss, generally 
speaking, somewhere or other : therefore a standard of valua¬ 
tion, called money, is established: this is not the same in all 
nations ; shells are money in some countries ; salt is money in 
others ; gold, silver, and paper bills in others ; and promises 
to pay, often serve the same purpose as the actual current 
specie. The study of political economy is one of great 
importance, because it has a practical bearing upon every 
member of the community, and it benefits society because it 
removes those impediments which hindered its advancement. 


THE EUROPEAN DEBT. 

The debt of Europe is estimated at £2,000,000,000. The interest of 
this debt is £100,000,000 per annum. The expenses of collecting this 
debt are about £25,000,000 a year. The armed force of Europe—soldiers, 
sailors, and police—are estimated at 2,800,000, and the cost of them at 
£120,000,000 a year; and supposing- their productive labour to be worth 
£200,000,000, added together, amounts to £320,000,000 a year for the 
physical force of the European nations. But these items are not all. 
There are at least 2,000,000 of Government employees, costing 
£25,000,000 more, 'these annual sums make a total of £445,000,000. 
The population of Europe is said to be about 220,000,000. It would 
thus appear that £2 a head a year are the average taxes imposed upon 
the European. Only, however, one-fourth of this population consists of 
men of mature age, or 55,000,000, and of these, perhaps, 15,000,000 are 
idlers, paupers, criminals, leaving 40,000,000 of industrious men to 
support their families and pay an average of £10 or £12 a head in taxes! 


PROGRESS OF THE PUBLIC REVENUE since the CONQUEST. 


1066 William the 
Conqueror 
1087 William Rufus 
1100 Henry 1. . . 

1135 Stephen . . . 
1154 Henry II. . . 

1189 Richard I. . . 

1199 John . . . 

1214 Henry III. . . 

1272 Edward I. . . 

1307 Edward II. . . 

1327 Edward III. 
1377 Richard II. . 
1399 Henry IV. . . 
1413 Henry V. . . 

1422 Henry Vf. . . 
1460 Edward IV. . v 
1483 Edward V. . t 
1483 Richard III .J 
1485 Henry VII. 

1509 Henry VIII. . 


} £400,000 

350,000 
300,000 
250,000 
200.000 
150,000 
100,000 
80,000 
150.000 
100,000 
150,000 
130,000 
100,000 
76,000 
64,000 

100,000 

400,000 
800,000 


1547 Edward VI .. 
1553 Mary . . . 
1553 Elizabeth 
1558 James /. . . 
1602 Charles I. . 
icmo c Commonwlth 
1648 1 Charles //. . 
1684 James II. . 
1688 William III. 
Anne, at the 
Union . 
George I. 
George II. . 
George III. 
Ditto . . 

Ditto . . 

1820-1 George IV. . 
1830 William IV. 
1837 Victoria . . 
1848-9 Ditto . . 


1706 

1714 

1727 

1788 

1800 

1820 


£ 400,000 
450,000 
450,000 
500,000 
600,000 
. 1,517,287 
1,800,000 
2,001,000 
3,805,000 

j 5,691,000 

6,762,643 

8,522,540 

15,572,671 

36,728,000 

54,282,958 

55,829,192 

50,056,616 

46,475,194 

59,323,465 


F 3 






6G 


POLITICAL ECONOMY, 


PEEIODS. 

1690 

1689 

War. 


1697 

1700 

Peace. 


1702 

1710 

War. 

1720 

1713 


Peace. 

1730 

1739 

1740 

War. 

1748 


1750 

Peace. 


1756 


War. 

1760 

1763 


Peace. 

1770 

1775 


War. 

1780 

1783 


Peace. 

1790 

1793 


War. 

1800 

1802 


1803 

1810 

War. 

1820 

1815 


Peace. 

1830 

1835 


THE NATIONAL DEBT, 

FUNDED AND UNFUNDED, STATED IN MILLIONS. 


} Debt contracted under Chas.II. and Jas. II.. .660,0001 or 
Contracted in the war of the Revolution, under Win. III. 

Total debt, 1697.... 
Liquidated in the Peace under Win. III. & Queen Anne 

i «. Total debt, 1702.... 

Contracted in war of Spanish succession, under Anne 

Total debt, 1713.... 
Liquidated during' this peace, under Georges I. and II.. 


2 


Total debt . 

Contracted in the war with Spain, and of the Austrian 


succession under George II. 


Total debt, 1748. 

Liquidated in this peace, under George II. 


Total debt, 1756. 

Contracted in the 7 years’ war under Georges II. & III. 


Total debt, 1763. 

Liquidated in this peace, under George III. 


21 


21A 
5 2 

16J 

37| 

?2 

461 

2 

3l| 

78 

3 

75 

72 

147 

11 


J Total debt, 1775. 

) Contracted in the American war, under George III. .... 

$ Total debt, 1783. 

1 Liquidated in the peace under George III. 

( Total debt, 1793. 

) Contracted in the war of the French Revolution, under 
> George III..... 


Contracted in this peace, under George III. 


Total debt, 1803.... 

"] Contracted in war against Buonaparte, under Geo. 111. 
I and Prince Regent... 

J Total debt, 1815.... 

Liquidated in this peace, under the Prince Regent, 
George IV. and William IV... 


136 

103 

239 


234 

292 

526 
3 


529 

336 


Total debt, 1835.... 
Contracted as compensation for slave emancipation, 
William IV., about. 


865* 

87 

778 

20 


Total debt, 1835. 


798 


* This is the highest point the National Debt has yet attained. 




































POLITICAL ECONOMY—MATHEMATICS. 


67 


While the observer is looking over the long list of glorious victories 
which our history records, it will be well to calculate the cost. It will 
be seen that the great burthen was mainly accumulated during ihe wars 
with America and France. The means by which money was procured 
were as questionable as the object it was needed to forward. According 
to the historian Alison, £600,000,000 of the debt were contracted 
in the Three per Cents.; in other words, the public creditor was 
inscribed in the books of the Bank of England for £100 in consideration 
of only £60 advanced to the nation. 

MATHEMATICS. 

By mathematics is intended that which rests upon a foun¬ 
dation that can be sworn to, or is proved, or does not admit 
of the slightest doubt. The mathematical are sometimes 
called the accurate sciences, because there is no doubt in them 
compared with other sciences; mathematical science is thus 
divided : I. Pure mathematics, containing arithmetic and 
geometry, which treat only of number and magnitude. II. 
Mixed mathematics, which treat of the properties of quantity 
applied to matter, as astronomy, geography, and physics. 
III. Speculative mathematics, which contemplate the pro¬ 
perties, relations, &c., of bodies in the abstract. IY. Practical 
mathematics, or their application to the practical uses of life. 
Geometry is an ancient, perfect, and beautiful science, which 
enables us to determine the relations and proportions of 
superficies and solids. Superficies consist of figures of three 
sides, called triangles ; of four sides, called quadrangles, 
squares, parallelograms, and trapeziums ; of five sides, called 
pentagons; of six sides, called hexagons ; of eight sides, 
called octagons; of many sides, called polygons. Superficies 
are also circles, ovals, or ellipses ; sectors of circles, or parts 
cut out from the centre, and segments of circles, cut off by a 
straight line, called a chord. Solids are cubes, regular and 
irregular spheres, cylinders, cones, pyramids, and spheroids. 
Definitions.—I. A point is that which hath no parts or no 
magnitude. II. A line is length without breadth. III. The 
extremities of a line are points. IY. A straight line is that 
wdiicli lies evenly between its extreme points. Y. A super¬ 
ficies is that which hath only length and breadth. YI. The 
extremities of a superficies are lines. 

Postulates. I. That a straight line may be drawn from 
any one point to any other point. II. That a terminated 
straight line may be produced to any length in a straight 
line. III. That a circle may bo described from any centre- 
at any distance from the centre. 


68 


MATHEMATICS—SCULPTURE. 


Axioms . I. Things which are equal to the same, are equal 
to one another. II. If equals he added to equals, the whole 
are equal. III. If equals be taken from equals, the remain¬ 
ders are equal. IY. If equals be taken from unequals, the 
remainders are unequal. Y. Things which are double of the 
same, are equal to one another. YI. Things which are halves 
of the same, are equal to one another. 

SCULPTURE. 

Sculpture is the art of carving stone or any other materials 
into definite forms. Greece has signalized herself in this as 
in all the fine arts, and has left to posterity many brilliant 
specimens of her power in giving life to stone. Modern 
sculptors have assigned four different styles to this art. I. 
The ancient style , which continued until the time of Phidias : 
most of the relics preserved of the ancient style, are in the 
form of medallions, and contain inscriptions, which lead back 
to very distant periods of time ; the writing is from right to 
left, and this custom w r as abandoned before the time of 
Herodotus. II. The grand style , which was brought to per¬ 
fection by Phidias, Polycletus, Scopas, Alcamcnes, Myron, 
and other illustrious artists. The most distinguished pro¬ 
duction of Phidias was his Jupiter Olympus, so noble a piece 
of sculpture, that it was deemed one of the wonders of the 
world. The figures of Niobe and her daughters, are likewise 
highly esteemed as specimens of this age of grandeur. III. 
The beautiful style was introduced by Praxiteles, Apelles, 
and Lysippus. A specimen of dignified beauty may be seen 
in the statue of one of the Muses in the Barberini Palace at 
Rome; and in the garden of the Pope near Quirinal is the 
statue of another Muse, which affords a fine instance of 
attractive beauty. Winkleman says, that the most excellent 
model of infant beauty which antiquity has transmitted to 
us, is a satyr of a year old, which is preserved, though a 
little mutilated, in the Yilla Albani. IY. The imitative 
style, practised by those artists who copied the works of the 
ancient masters. 

IMPORTANT FACTS 

IN GEOGRAPHICAL, HISTORICAL, A'ND NATURAL SCIENCE. 

Books. —At the beginning of the tenth century books were so scarce 
in Spain, that one bible often served several monasteries. The price of 
books was so high, that persons of moderate fortune could not afford to 
purchase them. In the year 1174, Walter Prior, of St Swithin, at 
Winchester, purchased of the monks at Winchester, Bede’s Homilies, 


IMPORTANT PACTS. 


69 


and St. Austin’s Psalter, for twelve measures of barley, and a pall, on 
which was embroidered in silver, the history of Biriuas converting- a 
Saxon king. About the year 1255, Roger de Insula, Dean of York, gave 
several Latin Bibles to the University of Oxford, on condition that the 
students who perused them should deposit a cautionary pledge. In 
1299, the Bishop of Winchester borrowed of his Cathedral Convent, of 
St. Swithin, at Winchester, the Bible with marginal notes, and gave a 
bond for the return of it drawn up with great solemnity ; for the bequest 
of tlie Bible to the convent, and 100 marks, the monks founded a daily 
mass for the soul of the donor. If any person gave a book to a religious 
house, lie believed that so valuable a donation merited eternal salvation, 
and he offered it on the altar with great ceremony. The Prior and 
Convent of Rochester declared that they would every year pronounce 
the sentence of irrevocable damnation on him who should purloin or 
conceal a Latin translation of Aristotle’s poetics, or even obliterate the 
title. Sometimes a book was given to a monastery, on condition that 
the donor should have the use of it for life. Before the year 1300, the 
library of the University of Oxford, consisted only of a few tracts, 
chained or kept in chests, in the choir of St. Mary’s Church. Among 
the statutes of St. Mary’s Church in 1446, one is, that no scholar should 
occupy a book in the library above an hour, or two at most. 

THE LIBRARIES OF EUROPE. 

The following is the order of the Libraries of Europe, according to 
the number of volumes which they contain, viz : Paris—National 
Library, 824,000 vols.; Munich—Imperial Library, 600,000 vols.; St. 
Petersburgh—Imperial Library, 446,000 vols.; London—British Museum 
435,000 vols.; Copenhagen—Royal Library, 412,000 vols.; Berlin—Royal 
Library, 410,000 vols.; Vienna—Imperial, 313,000 vols.; Dresden— 
Royal, 300,000 vols.; Madrid—National Library, 200,000 vols.; Wolfen- 
buttel—Ducal, 200,000 vols.; Stutgardt—Royal, 187,000 vols.; Paris— 
Arsenal Library, 180,000 vols.; Milan—the Brera Library, 170,000 vols.; 
Paris—the Library of St. Geneieve, 150,000 vols.; Darmstadt—Grand 
Ducal, 150,000 vols.; Florence—Magliabeechi Library, 150,000 vols.; 
Naples—Royal, 150,000 vols. ; Brussels—Royal, 133,000 vols. ; the 
Hague—Royal, 100,000 vols.; Paris—the Mazarine, 100,000 vols.; Rome 
—Vatican, 100,000 vols.; Parma—the Ducal, 100,000. 

The Libraries of Paris, Madrid, Berlin, Munich, Vienna, Copenhagen, 
Naples, Brussels, Milan, the Hague, Florence, Parma, and London, 
have a right, conferred by law, to copies of all the works published in 
the country. 

Number op Newspapers Published in various Countries.— 
Africa, 14 ; Australasia, 36 ; Austria, 37; Belgium, 81; Canada, 52 ; 
Denmark, 54; East India and China, 61 ; England and Wales, 500; 
France, 489 ; Germany, 109 ; Greece, 10 ; Hanover, 4; Holland, 57 ; 
Ireland, 89; Norway and Sweden, 70; Poland, 49; Portugal, 21; Prussia, 
172; Russia, 154 ; Scotland, 82; Spain, 77 ; Switzerland, 51; Turkey, 11; 
United States, 610; Van Dieman’s Land, 17; West Indies, 41. 

The Coral Insects.— The labours of the coralinse are a most 
singular feature in the economy of nature. The coral insect belongs to 
the°order polypes ; these beings are so insignificant, that they seem to 
be scarcely animalized at all. The coral banks are seen in the Pacific 
Ocean, in different stages of progress : some are become islands, but not 
yet habitable; others are above high water mark, but destitute of 
vegetation; Avhile many are overflowed with the returning tide. When 
the polypi, which form the corals at the bottom of the ocean, cease to 



70 


IMPORTANT FACTS. 


live, their skeletons still adhere to one another, and the interstices being 
filled up with sand, and broken pieces of corals and shells washed in by 
the sea, a mass of rock is at length formed ; future races of these 
animalcules spread out upon the rising bank, and in their turn die, 
increase and elevate this wonderful monument of their existence. 

Fishes. —Fishes have no voice because they have no lungs : they 
nevertheless sometimes produce a sound when raised above the water, 
by expelling the air through the gill opening when the flap is nearly 
closed; while others even under water utter sounds, as the salmon 
while depositing their Spawn; but for what purpose these sounds are 
uttered, or by what organ they are produced, we are still ignorant. 

Insects.— Insects are of great importance in the arts of life, because 
of the ready adaptation of their labours to many of its conveniences. 
Thus mead is prepared in many parts of Europe ; mead is prepared 
from the honey of bees ; silk is employed for clothing-; several insects, 
as cochineal, afford excellent dyes ; galls are employed for ink, wax, and 
lights, and other purposes ; lac, employed to make varnish, is obtained 
from an Indian species of corcus; as medicines, cochan, Spanish flies, 
ants, &c.; the oil beetle recommended for hydrophobia ; and many 
beetles for relieving the tooth-ache. 

Bridges. —There are many kinds of bridges in the world ; rope 
bridges, rock bridges, iron, wood, rush, and stone bridges ; the remains 
of a bridge of rushes still crosses the Desguadero, a river in Peru ; it 
was invented by Capac Yupanqui, the fifth Inca, for the purpose of 
transporting his army to the other side, in order to conquer the pro¬ 
vinces of Collasuyo. At Eampore, over the Sutlej, is a bridge of ropes 
called the Jhoola; the rope used in forming this bridge, is generally 
from two to three inches in circumference, and at least nine or ten times 
crossed to make it secure. The collection of ropes is traversed by a 
block of wood hollowed into a semicircular groove, large enough to slide 
easily along it, and around this block ropes are suspended, forming a 
loop, in which the passengers seat themselves, clasping its upper parts 
to keep themselves steady; a line fixed to the wooden block at each end, 
and extending to each bank, serves to haul it from one side of the river 
to the other. The rock bridge of Virginia is one of the most grand and 
stupendous wonders of the world ; it has been formed by some interest¬ 
ing natural process, how, we are of course unable to divine, and perhaps 
ever shall be. 

Magical Clock. —Droz, a Genevean mechanic, once constructed a 
clock, which was capable of the following surprising movements;— 
There were seen on it a negro, a dog, and a shepherd ; when the clock 
struck, the shepherd played six tunes on his flute, and the dog ap¬ 
proached and fawned upon him. The clock w r as exhibited to the king 
of Spain, who was delighted with it. “ The gentleness of my dog,” said 
Droz, “ is his least merit, if your majesty touch one of the apples which 
you see in the shepherd’s basket, you will admire the fidelity of the 
animal.” The king took an apple, and the dog flew- at his hand and 
barked so loud, that the king’s dog, which was in the room, began to 
bark also; at this, the courtiers not doubting that it was an affair of 
witchcraft, hastily left the room, crossing themselves as they went out. 
The minister of marine was the only one that ventured to stay. The 
king having desired him to ask the negro what o’clock it was, the 
minister did, but he obtained no answer; Droz then observed that the 
negro had not yet learned Spanish. 


IMPORTANT FACTS. 


VI 


Worm Plant. — China is remarkable, as possessing amongst its 
vegetable productions, the hiastaotomtetom, the root of which is said to 
change, at a certain time, into a worm. M. Reaumur has given it the 
name of plantera in the French, but he discovered the error of supposing 
such a transformation ; the whole truth of the case being, that a certain 
caterpillar, when about to change into the chrysalis state, so nicely joins 
itself to the root of this plant, as to appear a part of it. 

Opii i olatreanism is serpent worship, which has prevailed perhaps 
without a single exception, over the whole surface of the inhabited 
earth. In the most classical climes, and the most barbarous and 
uncivilized districts, this singular custom seems to have prevailed. The 
serpent, by some nations, is regarded as an evil, by others as a good 
deity. The serpent may be traced in the ceremonials of the worship of 
Egypt, Greece, and Rome. In Britain, it was anciently held in high 
veneration, and the archdruid possessed a talisman called the serpent's 
egg; all their temples were built in a serpentine form. In the east, they 
are regarded by some with feelings of horror; by others, with sentiments 
of devotion. Some travellers affirm, that among some tribes of the frozen 
and barbarous north, pictures resembling serpents are regarded with 
the highest degree of veneration. 

Bones of Captain Cook.— Some of the bones of Captain Cook have 
been preserved in the Tahitian temples, aud received worship, although 
every endeavour has been made to learn whether they are still in 
existence, and if so, where, has been unsuccessful. All who have in¬ 
quired, uniformly find, that they were kept by the priests of Rono, 
which god Captain Cook was supposed to be, and worshipped accord¬ 
ingly. The best conclusion we may form is, that part of Captain 
Cook’s bones were preserved by the priests, and considered sacred by 
the people, probably till the abolition of idolatry in 1819; but at that 
time, they were committed to the secret care of some chief, or deposited 
by the priests, who had charge of them, in a cave, unknown to all 
besides themselves. 

Singular Narcotic. —A plant is found in the woods near Papayan, 
according to the testimony of many very intelligent persons, possessing 
extraordinary strong narcotic properties. If a leaf of it be laid between 
the fingers or toes of a person while sleeping, it is said that he will not 
awake until it be removed. A branch of it also, if found on a snake 
when curled up, will effectually stupify it, so that it may be handled 
with safety. The white inhabitants of the country use every endeavour 
to root out this plant wherever it is found, for several fatal instances 
have occurred of slaves avenging themselves on their masters by its 
means ; they have been known to conceal under their master’s pillow, 
snakes that they had previously stupified by means of this herb, and 
the reptiles on recovering have killed those by whom they were first 
disturbed. 

Comets. —Speaking of comets, Sir J. F. AY. Herschell says, the calcu¬ 
lation of the diameters of their heads, and the lengths and breadths of 
their tails, offers not the slightest difficulty when once the elements of 
their orbits are known, for by them we know their real distances from 
the earth at any time, and the true direction of the tail, which we see 
only foreshortened. Now calculations instituted on these principles, lead 
to the surprising fact, that the comets are by far the most voluminous 
bodies in our system. The following are the dimensions of some of 
them, which have been made the subjects of inquiryThe tail of the 


72 


IMPORTANT FACTS. 


great comet of 1680, immediately after its perihelion passage, was found 
by Newton to have been no less than 20,000,000 of leagues in length, and 
to have occupied only two days in its emission from the comet’s body ! a 
decisive proof this of its being darted forward by some active force, the 
origin of which to judge from the direction of the tail, must be sought 
for in the sun itself. Its greatest length amounted to 41,000,000 leagues, 
a length much exceeding the whole interval between the sun and the 
earth. The tail of the comet of 1769, extended 16,000,000 leagues, and 
that of the great comet of 1811, 36,000,000. The portion of the head of 
this last, comprised within the transparent atmospheric envelope, which 
separated it from the tail, was 180,000 leagues in diameter. It is hardly 
conceivable that matter projected to such enormous distances should 
ever be collected again by the feeble attraction of a body like a comet, 
a consideration which accounts for the rapid progressive diminution of 
the tails of such as have been frequently observed. 

The Island of Great Britain appears to have been formerly a 
part of the Continent; and that England was once joined to France, the 
narrowness of the strait, and the sameness of the strata of stone and of 
earth on the opposite sides, are a sufficient indication. Whether it was 
disjoined by an earthquake, or an irruption of the ocean, or the opera¬ 
tion of man (which seems highly improbable), we know not. The 
sameness of the strata and of the rocks are not the only evidences; 
wolves and bears formerly existed in this Island. It is not likely that 
these animals could swim over, nor that such destructive animals would 
be transported by man, for in general the noxious animals of the Conti¬ 
nent are found in all those Islands which are very near it, but never in 
those which are remote. This fact was remarked by the Spaniards 
when they arrived in America. On the English Coast, the German sea 
must have occupied that large valley which commences at Sandwich, 
runs by Canterbury, Chartliam, and Chilham, and terminates at Ashford, 
a space of more than twenty miles. Here the land is much more elevated 
than it was in ancient times, for at Chartham the bones of a hippopo¬ 
tamus have been found embedded at the depth of seventeen feet, and 
likewise anchors of ships and sea shells. 

Druidical Eemains.— Salisbury Plain and Abury are celebrated as 
the places where exist the remains of Druidical temples; of these, while 
Abury is by far the least noted, it is considerably the most remarkable. 
The figure of the temple is that of a serpent, and the same figure appears 
to be preserved through all the Druidical temples. The Cromlech 
Stone is supposed to be a sepulchral monument. The Cheese Ring 
appears to be a monument alike of the mechanical skill and priestcraft 
of the Druids : it is sometimes called the Logan, and sometimes the 
Rocking Stone; it consists of an enormous mass of stone, sometimes 
placed upon a pile of rocks, as the famous one near the Land’s End, in 
Cornwall; others are on the level ground, others on rocky hills or the 
sea coast, and many in the interior of the country. The famous Trevethy 
Stone of Cornwall stands about one mile and a half north-east of St. 
Clear. The term Trevethy, signifies in British language, a place of 
graves; thus its sepulchral designation and British origin is evident. 
Mason, in his Caractacus, supposes that these stones were the tests of 
guilt and innocence, because they are so equally balanced, that the 
slightest touch will cause them to move upwards and downwards, while 
violent exertions to move them are unattended with success. 

The Desert. —Pillars of Sand. —The deserts of Arabia are 
amongst the most remarkable places in the world, and they are espe- 


IMPOBTANT FACTS 


73 


cially remarkable for their pillars of sand ; they are raised by whirlwinds, 
and have a very close resemblance in their appearance to waterspouts. 
The places where these pillars of sand most frequently occur, are those 
portions of the deserts which are near to a river or the sea. The pillars 
ot sand in the deserts of Africa are very magnificent; the raised sand is 
in wavy and rounded lobes, which have a curling motion, like that of 
smoke : and both the apex of the entire pillar, and the extremities of the 
lobes, are shaped off to a very indefinite outline. The mirage is 
another very singular feature of the deserts. The traveller frequently 
sees rising, as it were, before him, some great city or lovely village : he 
hastens onwards, full of eager anticipation to receive refreshment, and 
ever as he goes, the image recedes from his advancing steps, till at last 
lie sinks exhausted down, and discovers too late that it was an image 
formed by the refraction of the sun’s rays in a particular direction, upon 
an atmosphere somewhat hazy and opaque. 

The Human Frame. —The body, says Lord Brougham, is constantly 
undergoing changes in all its parts: probably no person at the age of 
twenty has one single particle in any part of his body which he had at 
ten, and still less does any part of the body he was born with, continue 
to exist in or with him. All that he before had has entered into new 
combinations, forming parts of other men, and other animals, or of 
vegetable or mineral substances. Exactly as the body he now has, will 
he be resolved into new combinations after his death. 

Shape of the Earth illustrated.— We have likened, says Sir 
J. F. N. Herschell, the inequalities on the earth’s surface, arising from 
mountains, valleys, buildings, &c., to the roughness of the rind of an 
orange, compared with its general mass. The comparison is quite free 
from exaggeration. The highest mountain does not exceed five miles 
in perpendicular elevation; this is only l-1000th part of the earth’3 
diameter; consequently, on a globe of sixteen inches diameter, such a 
mountain would be represented by a protuberance of not more than one 
hundredth part of an inch, which is about the thickness of an ordinary 
drawing paper. Now as there is no entire continent, nor even any very 
extensive tract of land known, whose general elevation above the sea, is 
any thing like half this quantity, it follows that if we could construct a 
correct model of our earth with its seas, continents, and mountains, on 
a globe sixteen inches in diameter, the whole of the land, with the 
exception of a few prominent points and ridges, must be comprised on 
it within the thickness of thin writing paper, and the highest hill would 
be represented by the smallest visible grain of sand. 

Swiftness of Man —Harold, King of England, called Harefoot, 
because he could run down a hare, was so fleet that few horses could 
keep up with him. Our Henry V. could outstrip a buck or doe, and 
catch it, though on foot, if he wished. Phillipides, sent by the Athenians 
to the Spartans to ask their assistance against the Persians, ran with 
such speed that in two days he went on foot one hundred and fifty 
Homan miles; in Peru, letters are sent by runners; these men have 
houses about one league and a half apart, and each man runs fifty 
leagues in a day and a night. The runners by profession of the Grand 
Seignor, are so swift of foot, that w T ith a little short pole axe, and a phial 
of sweet waters in their hand, they will go from Constantinople to 
Adrianople in twenty-four hours, a distance of one hundred and sixty 
Homan miles. 


a 


74 


IMPORTANT FACTS. 


RETURN OF THE NUMBER OF PERSONS ADMITTED TO 
VISIT THE BRITISH MUSEUM. 


From Christmas 1842 to Christmas 1843 .. 517,440 

From Christmas 1843 to Christmas 1844 . 575,758 

From Christmas 1844 to Christmas 1845 . 685,614 

From Christmas 1845 to Christmas 1846 . 750,601 

From Christmas 1846 to Christmas 1847 . 820,965 

From Christmas 1847 to Christmas 1848 . 897,985 


Number of Visits made to the Reading Rooms, for the purpose of 
Study or Research, about 1,950 in 1810; 4,300 in 1815; 8,820 in 1820; 
22,800 in 1825; 31,200 in 1830; 63,466 in 1835; 67,542 in 1840; 69,303 in 
1841; 71,706 in 1842; 70,931 in 1843; 67,511 in 1844; 64,427 in 1845; 
66,784 in 1846; 67,525 in 1847; 65,867 in 1848. 

Number of Visits, by Artists and Students, to the Galleries of Sculp¬ 
ture. for the purpose of Study, about 4,938 in 1831; 6,081 in 1835; 6,354 
in 1840; 5,655 in 1841; 5,627 in 1842; 4,907 in 1843; 5,436 in 1844; 4,256 
in 1845; 4,124 in 1846; 3,508 in 1847; 3,694 in 1848. 

Number of Visits made to the Print Room, about 4,400 in 1832; 1,065 
in 1835; 6,717 in 1840; 7,744 in 1841; 8,781 in 1842; 8,162 in 1843; 
8,998 in 1844; 5,904 in 1845; 4,390 in 1846; 4,572 in 1847; 5,813 in 1848. 

The Public are admitted to the British Museum on Mondays, Wed¬ 
nesdays, and Fridays, between the hours of Ten and Four, from the 7th 
September to the 1st May; and between the hours of Ten and Seven, 
from the 7th of May to the 1st September. 

Persons applying for the purpose of Study or Research are admitted 
to the Reading Rooms every day, from Nine o’clock in the Morning 
until Four in the Afternoon, between the 7tli of September and the 1st of 
May, and until seven in the Evening between the 7th of May and the 1st 
of September. 

Artists are admitted to study in the Galleries of Sculpture, between 
the hours of Nine and Four, every day except Saturday. - 

The Museum is closed from the 1st to the 7tli January, the 1st to 7th 
May, and the 1st to 7tli September inclusive, on Ash Wednesday, Good 
Friday and Christmas day, and also on any Special Fast or Thanksgiving 
Days ordered by Authority. 

NUMBER OF VISITORS 

To the State Apartments at Hampton Court Palace, and Windsor 
Castle, and to the Botanic Gardens at Kew, in the years 1847 and 1848. 


Hampton Court 

1847. 

162,031 

1848. 

150,321 

Windsor Castle 

25,970 

26,897 

Kew Gardens ~ 

64,282 

91,708 

ARMY. 

Cavalry.3 Regiments, Guards - 

Officers and Privates. 
1,308 

„ 19 

Line - 

- - 6,662 

4 

5J x >> 

E. I. C. Service 

3,867 

Infantry ...,3 „ 

Guards - 

- 5,253 

55 55 

Line - 

- 77,939 

„ 22 

E. I. C. Service 

- 26,013 

Ordnance 

Colonial Corps - 

—Engineers, &c. 

. 8,635 

- 129,677 

- 1.506 


Artillery, 9 Bat. 

6,931 

- 8,437 

138,114 














IMPORTANT FACTS. 


75 


Cost of a British Soldier per Day.— Pay, Is. Id.; Clothes,2£d.; 
Lodgings, Id.; Washing, ^d.; Medical attendance, l^d.; Miscellaneous, 
l£d.—Total, Is. 8d. 

THE ARMY. 


During the anti-Revolutionary war with France, declared 1793, and 
terminating with the peace of Amiens, 1801, the cost of the Army— 


In 1792 

was 

£1,819,460 

In 1797 

was 

£15,481,088 

1793 

»» 

3,993,715 

1798 

99 

12,852,814 

1794 

99 

6,641.060 

1799 

99 

11,840,000 

1795 

99 

11,610,008 

1800 

99 

11,941,767 

1796 

99 

11,911,899 

1801 

99 

12,117,039 

The sums 

voted for the Ordnance, during the same period, amounted 


altogether to about £15.000,000. The entire cost of this war is estimated 
at £36Q,000,000. Previously to 1793 the supplies annually voted by 
the House of Commons were £14,000,000 ; but those for 1801 -were 
£42,197,000, being double the amount of the whole land rent of the 
country. In 1803 the war with France was renewed, and in that year 
the military expenses were £11,562,722. 


In 1804.£12,341,061 

1805 . 12,218,637 

1806 . 13,191,221 

1807.. 14,016,326 

1808 . 14,778,541 

1809 . 14,328,718 


In 1810.£14,016,896 

1811 . 15,042,202 

1812 . 14,632,048 

1813 . 13,985,316 

1814 . 13,024,782 

1815 . 14,883,264 


During this period the Ordnance expenses were about £25,000,000. 
The cost of this war is estimated at £420,000,000. 


THE EXPENSE OF WAR. 


COST OF OUR WARS. 


£. 

The war of 1688 lasted nine years, and cost at the time - 36,000,000 

Borrowed to support it, twenty millions; the interest on 
which in one hundred and fifty-two years, at 3£ per cent., 
amounts to--------- 186,000,000 

The war of the Spanish succession lasted eleven years, cost 62,000,000 
Borrowed to support it, thirty-two and a half millions ; the 
interest of which in one hundred and twenty seven years 
amounts to-------- - 114,462,500 

The Spanish war ending 1748, lasted nine years, and cost - 54,000,000 

Borrowed to support it, twenty nine millions ; the interest 
in one hundred and two years amounts to 103,530,000 

The war of 1756 lasted seven years, and cost - 112,000,000 

Borrowed to support it, sixty millions; the interest in 

seventy-seven years amounts to - - - - - 161,700,000 

The American war lasted eight years, and cost - 136,000,000 

Borrowed to support it, one hundred and four millions; the 
interest in sixty-five years amounts to - - - - 236,600,000 

The French Revolutionary war lasted nine years, and cost 481,000,000 

Borrowed to support it, two hundred and one millions; 

the interest in thirty-eight years amounts to - - - 267,330,000 

The war against Buonaparte lasted twelve years, and cost 1,159,000,000 
Borrowed to support it, three hundred and eighty-eight 
millions; the interest in twenty-five years amounts to - 339,500,000 


Total 


£3,383,022,500 




















IMPORTANT PACTS, 


7G 


NUMBERS SLAUGHTERED. 

The numbers of British alone, estimated as slain or perished 
in the' war ending in 1697 
In the war which began in 1702 
In the war which began in 1739 - * 

In the war which began in 1756 ------ 

In the American war, began in 1775 ------ 

In the French war, began in 1793 ------ 


180,000 

250,000 

210,000 

250,000 

200,000 

700,000 


1,820,000 


Showing an expenditure of three thousand three hundred and eiglity- 
three millions, twenty two thousand, five hundred pounds; with the 
loss of one million eight hundred and twenty thousand lives. 


NAVY. 


In Commission 
In Ordinary - 
Building 



Ships. 

Frigates. 

Sloop3. 

Steamers. 

m 

11 

30 

133 

- 51 

m 

68 

81 

28 

24 

m 

- 19 

19 

21 

21 


98 

130 

182 

96* 


• 28,000 Horse Power. 

There are besides, 12 Sailing and 25 Steam Packets, and 111 non- 
effective Ships and Vessels employed in Harbour Service, making a total 
of 597. 

Officers and Seamen ----- 36,000 

Boys - -- -- -- - 2,000 

Marines ------- 10,500 


48,500 

The Cost of each Sailor is 2s. Jd. per day. 

MONEY. 

The standard of the Gold Coin of the United Kingdom is II parts 
fine to 1 part alloy: a pound troy of this standard gold is coined into 
46 sovereigns and 80-l20ths of a sovereign, or £46 14s. 6d., so that the 
sovereign contains 113 001 grains fine, and 123-274 grains standard gold. 

The standard of the silver coin is 11 oz. 2dwt. fine to 18dwt. alloy: 
a pound of this standard silver is coined into 66 shillings, so that each 
shilling contains 80 727 grains of pure silver, and 87-272 grain3 standard. 


PROVISIONS ANNUALLY 
190,000 Bullocks 
776,000 Sheep 
250,000 Lambs 
250,000 Calves 
270,000 Pigs 

1,000,000 Qrs. of Wheat, or 
64,000,000 Quartern Loaves 


CONSUMED IN LONDON. 
11,000 Tons of Butter 
13,000 Tons of Cheese 
1,000,000 Gallons of Milk 
65,000 Pipes of Wine 
2,000,000 Gallons of Spirits 
2,000,000 Barrels of Ale and 
Porter. 


The Annual average consumption of Meat in London, per 
head, is 122 lbs.; in Brussels, 89; in Paris, 86. The imports 
of Butter have been more than doubled in fifteen years. We 
consume twenty times as much Sugar as in 1700. Fifty times 







IMPORTANT PACTS. 


77 


as much Coffee as in 1801. Even since 1821, the consumption 
of Tea has increased from 23 to 47 millions of pounds ; Sugar, 
from 350 to 500; Coffee, from 7^ to 36|; Tobacco, from 15f 
to 27; Spirits, from 9,750,000 gallons to 24,000,000; Malt~ 
from 29,000,000 to 42,000,000 of bushels. Soap has advanced 
from 97,000,000 lbs. in 1821, to 186,000,000 in 1847. Bricks, 
in ten years, from 1,000 to 2,000 millions ; Paper, in the same 
time, from 61,000,000 to 127,000,000 of lbs. Consumption of 
Cotton in 1821, 137,000,000 of lbs., in 1846, 428,000,000 ; Wool, 
10,000,000 to 65,000,000; Silk, from 2^ to 5| millions; Flax, 
from 55,000,000 to 128,000,000 of lbs. In 1821, we exported 
£40,250,000 worth of produce and manufactures ; in 1846, 
£132,250,000. Our imports in 1821 were £29,750,000 ; in 1846, 
£76,000,000. Our shipping, 25,036 Ships, 2,560,203 tons, 
109,179 men in 1821, and 32,499 Ships, 3,817,112 tons, and 
229,276 men in 1846 ; besides ah increase in our Coasters 
from 9,000,000 to 13,000,000 in thirteen years. The value of 
Property insured from fire has, in ten years, advanced from 
£526,000,000 to £682,000,000. The Deposits in the Savings’ 
Banks in 1831, were £13,719,495; in 1841, £24,474,689; in 
1846, £33,694,642. In 1815, income from real property, above 
£50. a year, £52,000,000; in 1842, the income from real pro¬ 
perty, above £150., was £82,250,000; from Trades, in 1815, 
£35,000,000 ; in 1844, £60,000,000. The personal property 
annually bequeathed, between 1797 and 1831, averaged 
£22,000,000; and from 1831 to 1841, it averaged, annually, 
£42,250,000 ; in 1847, it was £43,611,642, even Ireland swelling 
the average. Up to 1845, the expenditure on Railways was 
£70,000,000, to 1848, 170,000,000. In 1839, a million and a 
half letters passed through the Post Office weekly, and in 
1848, six millions and a half. In 1839, £90,000 were remitted 
through the Post Office ; in 1848, £3,500,000. 

The productive powers of Ireland are equally conspicuous. 
In 1847 she raised, of Wheat, 2,936,733 quarters ; of Oats, 
11,521,606; of Barley, 1,379,029; of Bere, 274,016; of Rye, 
63,094; of Beans, 84,456 ; in all of grain, 16,258,934 quarters, 
or upwards of sixteen bushels per annum for each inhabitant, 
besides 2,046,195 tons of Potatoes, 5,760,619 tons of Turnips, 
2,190,317 tons of Hay, 349,872 cwts. of Flax, and 976,333 tons 
of other crops—being an average produce of five quarters of 
Corn per acre, seven tons of Potatoes, fifteen tons of Turnips, 
two tons of Hay—equal to 698 lbs. of Corn, and 561 lbs. of 
Potatoes per annum to each inhabitant. The live stock con¬ 
sisted of 557,917 Horses, 126,355 Asses, 2,591,416 Cattle, 
2,186,177 Sheep, 622,459 Pigs, 164,043 Goats, and 5,691,055 
Poultry. The land was occupied by 883,097 persons. 


G 3 


IS 


IMPORTANT FACTS. 


COALS. 

Annual Consumption of Coal in London at Different Periods. 


1316 

1662 

1670 


Prohibited by Edward I. 

Chaldrons. 

200,000 

270,000 


1750 

1800 

1847 


Chaldrons. 

500,000 

900,000 

1,800,000 


Price of a Ton of Coals at the Pit Mouth, with Duties and Expenses on 

it in London . 


s. d. 

Prime Cost and Shipping Charges 9 3 
Freight, 8s. 6 d. —Insurance, 1 \d. 8 7£ 
City Dues .... 11 

HalfWeighage . . . . 0 l£ 

Tret, Discount, and Scorage . 0 6 

Factory, 3d.— Del Credere, Id. . 0 4 
Stamps and petty incidents . 0 1£ 


Lighterage . 
Wharfinger . 
Loading . 
Cartage . 
Shooting . 

Total Cost 


8. d. 
. 1 3 

. 0 6 

. 0 9 

. 4 6 

. 1 0 


£18 0 


An Account of the Quantities of Coals brought Coastways and by Inland 
Navigatio?i into the Port of London, during the Year 1848, comparing 
the same with the Quantities brought during the Year 1847.* 



Coals brought into the Port of London. 

Coastways. 

By Inland 
Navigation and 
Land Carriage- 

Total. 

Year 1847 - 
Year 1848 - 

Tons. 

3,280,420 

3,418,340 

Tons. 

41,967 

60,849 

Tons. 

3,322,387 

3,479,189 


* It is to be observed that the whole of these Coals are not used in London, but 
are transmitted from thence to neighbouring Towns and Villages. 


The quantity of Coals exported from the United Kingdom to Foreign 
Countries in the year 1848, was 2,699,468 tons; of Cinders, 82,908 tons; 
and of Culm, 2,924 tons. 


BRITISH RAILWAYS. 

The summary of the condition of our railway system, made 
up to a late period, may truly be called a multum in parvo. 

The figures are not many,—but they say much. 

At the end of 1848, there were open for traffic 5,127 miles of 
railroad, and in various stages of progress 2,111 more,—of 
which 320 have been completed during the first six months of 
1849. The payments to the end of the last year had been, on 
shares, £156,508,578 ; to which must be added loans to the 
extent of £43,664,480: making a total of £200,173,058. 

Since then, upwards of £18,000,000 have been raised by 
calls alone. So that, including further sums that have beeu 
borrowed, there must, by this time, be at least two hundred and 
twenty millions sterling funded in this one branch of investment. 
This result of the operations of twenty years is a remarkable 
one. All the enormous capital has been raised by voluntary 
contributions from the savings, it may be said, of a single 















IMPORTANT PACTS. 


79 


generation; during which, moreover, all other kinds of com¬ 
mercial investment have, on the whole, been increasing in 
extent. Of the sums thus expended, the whole has, in one 
wav or another, been laid out in paying the workmen and 
buying the land or produce of these Islands: and the 5,500 
miles of railway thereby created have already done much, 
and will hereafter do more, to enliven industry—promote the 
ease of life—economize time—and enhance the value of all 
kinds of property. This, we say, is a remarkable instance of 
the spontaneous energies of the British people :—an instance 
which the follies and faults that have come to light in con¬ 
nexion with it, cannot deprive of its striking, and on the 
whole satisfactory, character. 

The total number of passengers conveyed on the 5,080 miles 
of passenger-railway then open, in the half-year ending 
December 1, 1848, was 31,630,292: viz., 3,743,602 first class; 
12,191,549 second class ; 7,184,032 third class ; 8,450,624 par¬ 
liamentary class ; and 60,485 mixed class. 

The parliamentary class includes those whom the companies 
are obliged to accommodate, with at least one train a day in 
each direction, at a penny per mile : the third class comprises 
those extra passengers whom the companies voluntarily convey 
at fares lower than those of the second class: the mixed class 
is composed of those whom it has been found difficult to place 
under any of the three headings. If we consider the third class 
as a general term, to be made up of the three last mentioned 
classes, we have the number 15,695,140. The gross receipts 
for conveying all the passengers amounted to £3,283,301: viz. 
first class, £1,003,516 ; second class, £1,360,468; third class, 
£919,317. The gross receipts for goods, parcels, mails, 
carriages, cattle, &c. in the same half-year, amounted to 
£2,461,663, which added to the £3,283,301 received from 
passengers, gave a total of £5,744,964. 

At the present time, allowing for additional lengths of rail¬ 
way open, the total receipts must be about one million 
sterling, per average month. If the state of the manufacturing 
districts had been as flourishing as in some previous half-years, 
the monthly receipts would have far exceeded this average. 
It amounts to about £47. per mile per week. 

The receipts of the London and North Western, the greatest 
of the companies, have for many half-years maintained an 
average of about £100. per mile, per week: sometimes a little 
more, and at other times a little less. 

VALUE OF INDUSTRIAL INVESTMENTS IN GREAT BRITAIN. 


Capital of Railway Companies ♦. .. .. .. <s6200,000,000 

Ditto Mining Companies . 9,978,747 

Ditto Gas Companies. 6,415,295 

Ditto Assurance Companies .. .. .. .. 6,000,000 






80 


IMPORTANT FACTS. 


PROPORTION OF BIRTHS TO MARRIAGES IN VARIOUS 

COUNTRIES. 


Austria 

4-60 

Norway and Sweden 

3-62 

Belgium 

. 4-64 

Holland .... 

. 4-20 

Bohemia . 

4-27 

Portugal .... 

414 

England . . 

France 

. 4-50 
3-95 

Russia .... 

. 425 

PROPORTION OF DEATHS TO THE POPULATION 
VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 

IN 

Austria . 

. 1 in 40 

Portugal 

1 in 40 

Belgium . 

. 1 „ 43 

Prussia .... 

1 „ 39 

Denmark . . 

l „ 45 

Russia in Europe. 

1 „ 44 

England . . 

. 1 „ 46* 

Spain .... 

1 „ 40 

France . 

1 42 

Switzerland . . 

1 „ 40 

Norway and Sweden 

. 1 „ 41 

Turkey .... 

1 „ 30 


* Average of the last 4 years. 


The mean general duration of human life is between 38 and 42 years. 
The natural limit of human life is from 80 to 90. Of all new-born 
infants 1 out of 4 dies the first year; two-fifths scarcely attain their 6th 
year ; and before their 22nd year one-half of the generation are consigned 
to the grave. The proportion of births to marriages, on an average, and 
in a country of some extent, can scarcely be more than 5, or less than 3, 
to one marriage. The ordinary proportion in the most civilized coun¬ 
tries of the world is 4 births to one marriage. The proportion of births 
to deaths is, one year with another, from 101 to 150 for every 100. 
Taking the total number of the human race at 700,000,000 (an extremely 
low estimate), the ratio of the deaths to the living population as 1 to 33, 
and that of the births to the living as 1 to 298£, we shall have for the 
whole globe,— 

In One Year. One Day. One Hour. One Minute. 

Births.23,728,813 .... 65,010 .... 2708 . 45 

Deaths ..21,212,121 .... 58,120 .... 2421 . 40 

"Whence it follows that the sum total of the human race would in one 

year be augmented by an accession of 2,516,692 individuals, were it not 
for wars and pestilences. This augmentation would in 100 years create 
a population of 3,216,000,000. The number of males in a given number 
of births exceeds that of females in the ratio of 16 to 15: but the mor¬ 
tality is greater among male children In the ratio of 27 to 26. 

EXPERIMENTS ON RESPIRATION. 

(Communicated by JF. A. Guy, Esq., M.D., F. R S.J 
The number of respirations varies from 12 to 22 in a minute, and in 
the sitting posture, from 15 to 21. For the same frequency of the pulse 
(64), the number of respirations is, standing, 22; sitting, 19 ; and lying, 
13. The respirations morning and evening, for equal frequencies of the 
pulse, are as 18 to 17. The proportion which the respirations bears to 
the pulse, varies from 1: 2*60 to 1 :5 23. For a pulse of 64 the proportion 
is, standing, 1 :2 95, sitting, 1 : 3'35, and lying, 1:4-97. The proportions, 
morning and evening, for equal frequencies of the pulse, are 1: 3 60 and 
1 : 3 - 40. The proportion is not the same for all frequencies of the pulse : 
e. g., for a pulse of 54, it is 1 to 3, for a pulse of 72, 1 to 4. The above 
arc the results of observations made by Dr. Guy on his own person by 
means of a registering instrument invented for that purpose. 







IMPORTANT FACTS. 


81 


FREQUENCY OF THE PULSE AT DIFFEEENT AGES IN 
MALES AND FEMALES RESPECTIVELY. 


Communicated by W. A. Guy, Esq,, M.D., F.ll.S. 


MALES. 

FEMALES. 

AGE. 


£ 

0 

§ 

0) 

be 

a 

* K 

03 

0 

0 

oS 

0> 

bfi 

0 




a 

§ 

S 

aS 

tf 

S 

i 

a 

ai 

1 week 


— — 

160 

104 

128 

56 

160 

104 

128 

56 

2 weeks to 7 years- 

128 

72 

97 

56 

128 

70 

98 

58 

8 years 

to 14 


108 

70 

84 

38 

120 

70 

94 

50 

15 „ 

21 


108 

60 

76 

48 

124 

56 

82 

68 

22 „ 

28 


100 

53 

73 

47 

114 

54 

80 

60 

29 „ 

35 


92 

56 

70 

36 

94 

62 

78 

32 

36 „ 

42 


90 

48 

68 

42 

100 

56 

78 

44 

43 „ 

49 


96 

50 

70 

46 

106 

64 

77 

42 

50 ,, 

56 


92 

46 

67 

46 

96 

64 

76 

32 

57 „ 

63 


84 

56 

68 

28 

108 

60 

77 

48 

64 „ 

70 


96 

54 

70 

42 

100 

52 

78 

48 

71 „ 

77 


94 

54 

67 

40 

104 

54 

81 

50 

78 „ 

84 

»» 

97 

50 

71 

47 

105 

64 

82 

41 


Foreign Measures reduced to Fnglish Denominations. 


Metre of France .... 

Toise of France .... 

Geographical league of France . 
Nautical league of France 
Spanish league .... 
German Geographical mile . 
Russian werst .... 

Swedish mile ...» 

Danish mile. 

Dutchimile. 

French Geographical square league 
German Geographical square league 


3-281 feet 
2-13155 yards 

4808-6 yards, or 2-76 miles 
6085 - S yards, or 3'4f>7 miles 
7421 yards, or 4"216 miles 
8114 yards, or 4'61 miles 
1162 yards 

11703 yards, or 6-67 miles 
8224 yards, or 4-67 miles 
6406 yards, or 3-638 miles 
7 - 65 square miles 
21"25 square miles 


LENGTH OF BRIDGES. 


FEET. 

Alcantara, Spain .. .. 1920 

Bordeaux (stone) .. 1593 

Boston, U. S. (wood) .. 3483 
London .. .. .. 930 

Menai .. .. .. .. 1060 
Philadelphia (stone) .. 1500 

HEIGHT OF 

FEET. 

Ache, Bavaria . • .. I960 

Arve, Savoy .. .. 1600 

Bogota.. .. .. .. ^86 
Cerosoli, Alps .. .. 2390 

Chaudiere, Canada .. .. 100 

Chachia, Asia .. .. 362 

Cettina, Dalmatia .. .. 150 

Clyde .. 84 

Devil’s Bridge, Switzerland 100 

Evanson, Switzerland .. 1200 

Evilino, Italy .. .. 300 

Fyers, Scotland ., .. 197 

Garisha, India .. .. 1000 


FEET* 

Eatisbon .. .. .. 1050 

Southwark .. .. 850 

Strasburgh (wood) .. .. 3390 

St. Esprit, over Rhone .. 3060 

Vienna.. .. .. .. 2400 

Waterloo, London 1242 

WATERFALLS. 

FEET* 

Ganges-head '.174 

Lauterbrun, Alps.. .. 875 

Lulea, Lapland .. .. 397 

Killarney, O’Sullivan’s Cascade 70 
Montmorency, Canada .. 250 

Niagara Horse Shoe Fall .. 150 

Niagara (U. S. side) .. 164 

Potomac .. *. .. 72 

Passaic .. .. .. 71 

Schaffhausen ..80 

Staubach .. .. .. 798 

Tivoli, Italy.90 

































82 


IMPORTANT PACTS 


AREA, POPULATION, REVENUE, AND ARMY OF 
VARIOUS COUNTRIES. 


COUNTRY. 

Area in 
Square 
Miles- 

Population. 

Population 
to Square 
Miles. 

Revenue. 

Army. 

Austria (see Hun- 




£. 


gary) 

- 

258,188 

36,950,000 

138-2 

13,000,000 

474,000 

Bavaria 

- 

29,637 

4,315,469 

145-6 

2,501,000 

57,000 

Belgium 

- 

11,375 

4,242,600 

372-9 

3,941,930 

100,000 

Bohemia - 

- 

20,285 

4,128,661 

203-5 

2,000,000 

50,000 

Bolivia 

- 

318,000 

1,200,000 

3-7 

340,000 

2,000 

Brazil 

- 

2,700,000 

5,300,000 

1-90 

3,000,000 

60,000 

Chili - 

- 

129,500 

1,200,000 

9-2 

450,000 


China 

- 

5,300,000 

310,000,000 

58-4 



Circassia - 

- 

33,000 

3,000,000 

90 



Colombia - 

- 

1,155,000 

3,187,000 

27-7 



Denmark - 

- 

21,856 

2,033,265 

93 

1,653,792 

32,000 

Egypt- 

- 

150,000 

1,927,000 

12-8 

3,000,000 

160,000 

France 

- 

211,730 

34,194,875 

161-5 

40,000,000 

311,000 

Great Britain 

- 

86,575 

18,664,761 

215-5 

46,000,000 

101,455 

Greece 

- 

13,887 

856,470 

61-6 

2,489,550 

9,011 

Hanover - 

- 

14,726 

1,888,280 

128-2 

1,320,000 

20,000 

Holland 

- 

13,598 

2,893,716 

212-8 

5,000,000 

43,000 

Hungary - 

- 

78,822 

10,471,400 

132-9 

2,000,000 

64,000 

Ireland 

- 

32,025 

8,175,238 

255-2 



Japan- 

- 

266,600 

50,000,000 

188 


120,000 

Mexico 

- 

1,230,442 

7,700,000 

6-9 

3,000,000 

20,000 

Morocco - 

- 

219,300 

8,500,000 

38-9 



Naples and the 






Two Sicilies 

• 

31,407 

6,021,284 

190 

4,500,000 

37,000 

Norway 

- 

122,460 

1,194,827 

9-7 

530,000 

12,150 

Papal States 

- 

17,218 

2,832,036 

158 

3,000,000 

23,680 

Portugal - 

- 

36,510 

3,549,420 

97-2 

1,500,000 

28,000 

Persia:— 







Kgm. of the Shah 

500,000 

1 




— Afghanistan 

240,000 

18,000,000 

8-8 



— Beloochistan 

150,000 

J 




Peru - 

- 

500,000 

1,700,000 

3-4 



Prussia 

- 

107,894 

15,293,271 

141-7 

7,605,675 

530,000 

Russia, in Europe 

2,110,000 

56,500,000 

26-7 7 



— Asia 


5,000,000 

3,500,000 

0-70 y 

15,836,000 

594,000 

— America 

500,000 

61,053 

0-12 J 



Sardinia 

- 

29,102 

4,650,368 

16 

2,913,000 

35,200 

Saxony 

- 

5,759 

1,652,000 

286 

1,100,000 

13,000 

Spain - 

- 

179,465 

12,168,174 

67-9 

10,270,000 

60,000 

Sweden 

- 

170,240 

2,983,144 

17 

1,687,278 

32,000 

Switzerland 

- 

15,233 

2,184,096 

143 

24,000 


Turkey, in Europe 

180,000 

12,180,000 

67 

3,000,000 

219,000 

Turkey, in Asia 






and Africa 

— 

500,000 

15,000,000 

20 



United States 

- 

1,265,618 

17,069,453 

13-5 

7,380,000 

*11,169 

'Wirtemberg 


7,840 

1,634,654 

208 

966,783 

15,000 


* Militia, 1844, 1,749,682. 




















IMPORTANT FACTS 


83 


SOURCES OF REVENUE. 


Customs. 

Stamps:— 

Deeds and other Instruments . 

Probate and Legacies 

Insurance, Marine .... 

„ Fire .... 
Bills of Exchange and Bankers’ Notes 
Newspapers and Advertisements . 

Stage Coaches. 

Receipts.; 

Other Stamp Taxes .... 

Land Taxes . 

Assessed Ditto . . : 

Property and Income Tax , 
Post-office. 


£- 

1,962.000 
2,211,000 
150,000 \ 
1,056,000 J 
671,000 
350,000 
441,000 
184,000 
651,000 
1,166,000 \ 
3,309,000/ 
5,544,000 


To this must be added the extra profit necessitated 
to traders, in consequence of the Customs and 
Excise duties enhancing the first cost of all 
articles. 


Total 


On Trade 
and 

Industry. 

On 

Property 

£. 

37,290,000 

£- 

654,000 

2,211,000 

1,308,000 

1,206,000 

— 

671,000 

350,000 

441,000 

123,000 

217,000 

61,000 

434,000 

— 

4,475,000 

2,271,000 

1,964,000 

3,273,000 

47,398,000 

9,551,000 

9,324,000 

- 

56,722,000 

9,551,000 


Post-Office Revenue for Years ending Jan. 5 , 1842 , and 1847 . 



1842. 

1847. 

Postage, inwards and outwards, collected in the United King¬ 
dom, including ship letters, &c. - 

Postage charged on Public Departments 

Postage Stamps 

Postage collected by agents and postmasters abroad 
Commission on Money Orders - 

Miscellaneous Receipts ...... 

£ 

793,770 

128,661 

467,411 

81,742 

21,787 

2,169 

£ 

902,153 

120,204 

786,477 

117,901 

34,229 

2,893 

Increase compared with Year ending 5th Jan., 1842 

1,495,540 

1,963,857 

468,317 


The gross revenue of the Post-Office for the Year ending January 5, 
1849, was £2,192,478; the cost of management £1,386,853; the net 
revenue, after deducting charges other than management, was £740,429. 
The number of money orders issued was 4,203,727, the amount of them 
being £8,151,295. 

The amount of commission on the issue was £70,190; the amount of 
expense incurred was £75,935 

The gross total number of letters delivered in England, Wales, Scot¬ 
land, and Ireland, was, for the week ending January 21, 1849, 6,641,796; 
for the week ending February 21, it was 6,849,196. 

TAXATION. 

If men are oppressed by heavy taxation, they will protest most 
loudly against the most visible of their burdens. The income and 
property tax was imposed to compel us to make an extra exertion to 
































84 


IMPORTANT FACTS. 


reduce debt. But if all taxes on consumption were abolished, the 
sudden and expansive spring' which every branch of trade and 
industry would at once experience from an unshackled gigantic 
commerce, would cause taxation of any kind to be lightly felt, and 
men would “ freely give, who freely had received.” 

It is in this view that a very well considered, and wisely supported 
proposition, has been made to pay a large portion of the public debt, 
by an immediate sacrifice of a large per centage of the property of 
the nation. We possess, at least, £5,000,000,000 worth of property. 
Sixteen per cent, of that would pay our whole national debt. Now 
see the result. The remaining 84 per cent., would almost at once rise 
in value by the reduction of the burdens upon it to the amount of the 
remaining 16 per cent, deducted. Because, remove from labour, the 
prosecutions of commercial enterprize, and industry, £34,000,000 
a year of taxes, and what limit could be placed to the creation of 
property and productions of all kinds ? Taken at once out of the tan¬ 
gible property of the nation, all difficulty and expense of collection 
would be at an end—the people would then, in their private capa¬ 
city, be the collectors of what were formerly taxes, but of what would 
then be private mortgagees to meet the 16 per cent. 

Nearly four millions per annum of terminable annuities and debts 
to the Bank of England, will, at no distant date, be deducted from 
our yearly expenditure. We should make a mighty effort to pay off 
the debt at once, by a sacrifice of 16 per cent, of our property. That 
would rid us of £34,000,000 a year of our expenditure ; and the re¬ 
maining £20,000,000, by judicious economy, and a house and property 
tax, might be easily met, leaving commerce and trade absolutely 
free ; and offering to our over-laboured and pauperized masses, abun¬ 
dant employment, and the freest and cheapest access to all the 
necessaries of life. 

ENGLISH AND AMERICAN GOVERNMENTS. 


Salaries of the American Executive- 


President of United States . . £5,266 

"Vice-President .... 1,052 

Secretary of State .... 1,825 

Secretary of War . . . 1,826 

Postmaster-General . . . 1,825 

Attorney-General ... 911 

Secretary to Senate . . . 918 

Commissioner of Patents. . 918 

Paymaster-General * . • 626 

Secretary of the Navy . . 1,825 


£16,685 

Thus it will appear that the whole cost 
of the Executive of the United States is 
considerably less than the Lord-Lieute¬ 
nant of Ireland’s Establishment. 


Cost of the English Executive. 


The Eoyal Civil List, Privy 
Purse, Salaries of the House¬ 
hold, and Tradesmen’s Bills. £371,800 


The Allowances to the princi¬ 
pal branches of the Royal 

Family . 318,000 

The Lord-Lieutenant of Ire¬ 
land’s Establishment. .... 30,554 

Salaries and Expenses of 
Houses of Parliament .... 123,847 

Civil Denartment — Salaries, 

& including Superannuation 

Allowances . 524,773 

Other Annuities, Pensions, and 
Superannuation Allowances. 312,641 

Pension Civil List. 6,120 


Total Annual Cost of Executive £1,686,735 


POPULATION, POORS’ RATE, &c. 

An official return gives the following facts respecting population, poors’ rate, &c. : 
Population in 1841, England and Wales 15,906,731 ; Ireland, 8,174.568 ; Scotland, 
2,620,216. Annual value of property rated to the poors’ rate in England, £67,320,087 ; 
in Ireland, £13,187,421 ; in Scotland, £9,320,784. Expenditure for the relief and 
maintenance of the poor for the year ended Lady-day, 1848, in England, £6,180,765; 
in Ireland, £1,216,679; in Scotland, £541.334. Total number of paupers relieved, 
including casual poor, 1,176,541 in England ; 1,457,194 in Ireland: 227,647 in Scotland* 
1 roportion per cent., of number of paupers relieved to population in England, 11-8; 
in Ireland, 17-8; in Scotland, 8-6. Rate per head of expenditure, or total number of 
paupers relieved, £3 5s. 10£d., in England; 16s- 8*d. in Ireland ; and £2 7s. 9£d. iu 














IMPORTANT PACTS 


85 


Annual Value of Heal Property assessed to the Property and 
Income Tax for the Year ended 5th of April, 1843. 



England. 

Scotland. 

TOTAL. 

Land .... 
Houses .... 
Tithes .... 
Manors .... 
Fines .... 
Quarries .... 
Mines .... 
Iron Works . . . 

Fisheries , 

Canals .... 

Railways 

Other Property. 

40,167,088 

35,556,400 

1,960,330 

152,217 

319,140 

207,009 

1,903,794 

412,022 

11,105 

1,229,202 
2,417,610 
1,466,816 

£. 

5,586,528 

2,919,338 

902 

33,474 

177,593 

147,413 

47,810 

77,891 

181,333 

309,480 

45,753,616 
38,475,738 
1,960,330 
152,217 
320,042 
240,483 
2,081,337 
559,435 
58,915 
1,307,093 
2,598,943 
1,776,296 


85.802,735 

9,481,762 

95,284,497 


The value estimated at 25 years’ purchase of the real pro¬ 
perty in Great Britain, in 1842, is thus shown to amount to 
£2,382,112,425; estates yielding less than £150. per annum 
being excluded. 

Proportion of Duties and Taxes to each Individual in the 


United Kingdom, at the following periods. 


Year. 

Population of 
United Kingdom. 

Amount of 
Duties & Taxes. 

Amount per head 
to the population. 



£ 

£. 

s. 

d. 

1801 

18,338,102 

34,113,146 

2 

1 

9 

1811 

18,547,720 

65,173,545 

3 

10 

3 

1821 

21,193,458 

55,834,192 

2 

12 

8 

1831 

24,271,763 

55,788,124 

2 

6 

5 

1841 

26,711,649 

51,911,588 

1 

18 

10 


NUMBER OF NEWSPAPER STAMPS 
Issued in the following years, distinguishing the stamps at 1 d. from 

those at fyd. 


ENGLAND AND WALES. 

SCOTLAND. 

IRELAND. 

1843 

1844 

1845 

1846 

1847 

1848 

1849 

1 d. 

50,088,175 

51,612,195 

54,084,761 

59,651,024 

64,452,389 

64,138,660 

67.476,768 

<%d. 

1,481,524 

1,956,832 

3,724,378 

10,382,491 

9,110,420 

8,197,467 

8,704,064 

Id. 

5,540,424 
5,831,671 
6,050,465 
6, 450,529 
6,885,306 
7,421,032 
7,497,064 

u. 

440,400 

257,150 

325,620 

508,750 

310,671 

238,175 

176,854 

Id. 

6,063,908 

6,452,072 

6,769,067 

6,921,888 

6,960,440 

6,574,607 

7,028,956 

M. 

35,750 
142,580 
249,550 
235,178 
131,925 
57,510; 
44.7021 


n 




































86 


IMPORTANT FACTS, 


GOVERNMENTS. 

1. An hereditary or elected line of chiefs —This kind of government is 
usually found among savage and wandering tribes ; it exists throughout 
the islands of the Pacific ; among the independent North American 
Indians, and in a great part of Africa, and the southern portion of South 
America. 

2. A Monarchy without Laws —One man, under the name of king, em¬ 
peror, or sultan, not only rules his people without control, but has 
almost unlimited power over their lives and property. This kind of 
government prevails in China, Japan, and Farther India; as also in 
Hindostan, Persia, Turkey, Arabia, and North Africa, in Guinea and 
Soudan, and Paraguay. 

3. An Absolute Monarchy, with Laws —This kind of government is 
attended with less power over life and property, and is more humanely 
conducted; it prevails in civilized nations, as Russia, Austria, Prussia, 
Italy, and Sardinia. 

4. A Limited Monarchy —In this kind of government the power of the 
supreme ruler is checked by a deliberative body, composed either of 
peers, or of deputies from the people, or of both together; it prevails 
in England, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, 
Greece, and Brazil. 

5. The Republican Form of Government —This consists solely of a 
body deputed by the people; it is established in France, Switzerland, 
the Ionian Isles, the United States of America, Mexico, Guatemala, 
and the whole of South America, excepting Brazil, Paraguay & Patagonia. 


CHRONOLOGY OF BRITISH PREMIERS, FROM 1754. 



Appointed. 



- 


Time in Office. 

1754 

April 5 


. 

Duke of Newcastle 


Yrs. 

8 


Bays. 

<3 

1762 

May 29 

- 

- 

Earl of Bute 

. 


- 

322 

1763 

April 16 

- 

- 

G. Grenville 

. 

2 

- 

87 

1765 

July 12 

- 

- 

Marquis of Rockingham 

1 

- 

21 

1766 

Aug. 2 

- 

- 

Duke of Grafton - 

- 

3 

- 

179 

1770 

Jan. 28 

- 

- 

Lord N orth - 

_ 

12 

- 

34 

1782 

Mar. 3 

- 

• 

Marquis of Rockingham 


- 

132 

1782 

July 13 

- 

- 

Earl of Shelburne - 



• 

266 

1783 

April 5 

- 

- 

Duke of Portland - 




260 

1783 

Dec. 27 

- 

- 

William Pitt 


17 

. 

80 

1801 

Mar 17 

- 

- 

Lord Sidmouth 


3 

• 

56 

1804 

May 12 

- 

- 

William Pitt 


1 


241 

1806 

Jan 8 

- 

- 

Lord Grenville 


1 


64 

1807 

Mar 13 

- 

- 

Duke of Portland - 


3 


102 

1810 

June 23 

- 

- 

Spencer Percival - 


1 

_ 

350 

1812 

June 8 

- 

- 

Earl of Liverpool - 

- 

14 

• 

307 

1827 

April 11 

- 

- 

George Canning - 




121 

1827 

Aug 10 

- 

- 

Lord Goderich 



a. 

168 

1828 

Jan 25 

- 

- 

Duke of Wellington 


2 


301 

1830 

Nov 22 

- 

- 

Earl Grey 

, 

3 

_ 

231 

1834 

J uly 11 

• 

- 

Lord Melbourne - 

- 



128 

1834 

Nov 10 

- 

- 

Duke of Wellington 



a. 

22 

1834 

Dec 8 

• 

- 

Sir Robert Peel 




131 

1835 

April 18 

• 

- 

Lord Melbourne - 

_ 

6 


138 

1841 

Sept 3 

• 

- 

Sir Robert Peel 


4 


97 

1845 

Dec 10 

- 

- 

Lord John Russell 

a. 


• 

10 

1845 

Dec 20 

- 

- 

Sir Robert Peel 




188 

1840 

June 20 

- 

- 

Lord John Russell 

- 













ANIMAL, VEGETABLE, AND MINERAL 
PRODUCTIONS, 

WITH THE NAMES OF THE COUNTRIES PRODUCING THEM ; 

ALSO, 

THINGS IN DAILY USE. 


AGATES —Africa, the East Indies, Si 
beria, ami several parts of Europe, hut 
chiefly Iceland, Saxony, and Tuscany. 

Alabaster —Spain, Italy, France, Eng¬ 
land, America. 

Alkanet Root —imported from the Le¬ 
vant, or the neighbourhood of Montpelier 
in France; also from Siberia and Spain. 

Alligatoi —North America, South Ame¬ 
rica, and the northernmost parts of Africa. 

Allspice —see Pimento. 

Almonds —Spain, France, Italy, the Le¬ 
vant, Arabia, Asia, Africa. Indigenous to 
Greece, and also the Barbary States. 

Aloes —America, the West Indies. The 
medicinal aloes are indigenous to India, 
Africa, and Italy. 

Aloes Wood. —the produce of a large forest 
tree growing in most of the countries be¬ 
tween China and India. 

Alum —fossil salt—the Levant and Italy. 

Amber— in mines in Prussia, near the 
gea-coast; on the shores of Sicily and the 
Adriatic; on the southern shores of the 
Baltic, and the eastern shores of England ; 
Mexico. 

Ambergris— this is obtained from tile Ca¬ 
chalot—see Spermaceti. 

Amethyst—o precious stone of a violet co¬ 
lour— Sweden, Bohemia, Saxony, and 
other parts of Europe; Siberia, India 
(Ceylon), Mexico, and Brazil. 

A m ianthns— see Asbestos. 

Ammoniacum (a resinous juice obtained 
from a plant resembling fennel)—Africa, 
Arabia, Persia, anti India. 

Ananas—see. Tine-apple. 

Anchovy —the Mediterranean (chiefly oft' 
Gorgona); off the coasts of Spain, France, 
and Italy; and occasionally oft' those ol 
England. 

Anise-seeds —Egypt, to which they are 
indigenous ; Syria, and other eastern coun¬ 
tries ; Spain, and Malta. 

Ant bear —South America (Brazil, Gui¬ 
ana), East Indies, and Cape of Good 
Hope 

Antelope— Europe, Asia, Africa, Arabia. 

Apes —Asia (the East Indies), and Africa. 

Aqua-fortis —a liquor made of saltpetre 
and vitriol. 

Areca, or Betel-nnt (an aroinatir fruit, 
the prod uce of tile palm tree)—East indies, 
China, &c. 


Armadillo—Mexico, nnd South America. 

Arnotto (a vegetable red dye)—South 
America, East Indies, West Indies. 

Arrack (a spirituous liquor)—Batavia, 
from lice; Goa, from the juice of the co¬ 
coa-tree. 

Arrow-root— East Indies, South Ame¬ 
rica, West Indies. 

Arsenic —Great Britain, Saxony, Bohe¬ 
mia, Hungary, Mexico, 8cc. 

Asafxtida t a kind of gmn) — Persia. 

Asbestos (an incombustible kind of earth) 
—the Ural, and some other European 
mountains; Swedish Lapland, Caudia, 
China. 

Asphallnm (a friable kind of bitumen) — 
the Dead Sea, many parts of Europe and 
America, the Island of Trinidad, &c. 

BABOOXS— Asia (Borneo and the Phi¬ 
lippine Islands), and the hot parts of 
Africa. 

Bamboo Cane— the East Indies, China, 
West Indies, and America. 

Banana (a species of plantain) — Egypt; 
the West Indies, and other tropical coun¬ 
tries. 

Barilla (an alkaline salt, used in making 
glass)—Spain, Egypt, Hungary, See. 

Bdellium (a semi-pellucid gum resin) — 
Persia and Arabia. 

Bear —the northern parts of Europe 
Asia, Arabia, Egypt, Barbary, Japan, Cey¬ 
lon, North America, Peru. 

Beacei —the north of Europe. Asia, and 
America. 

Ben —a fermented liquor extracted from 
malt and hops. 

Bell-metal —copper mixed with tin, 8cc. 

Benzoin, or Benjamin —see Frankincense. 

Bergamot (a perfume) — Bergamo in 
Italy. 

Beryl (a light-green gem) —Siberia; 
Hanna, on the frontiers of China; Saxony, 
South of France, North America, Brazil. 

Betel (a species of pepper vine), a shrub 
whose leaf is chewed—the East Indies. 

Bezoar (a concretion found in the sto¬ 
mach of certain animals)—Persia and the 
East Indies. 

Bird of Paradise—the Islands of Papua 
and L)roo. 

Bison— Poland, Lithuania, North Ame 
net. 




ANIMAL, VEGETABLE, AND MINERAL PRODUCTIONS 


Black Bear —Incfia, Afnca, America, 
Kam tscii atka. 

Black Eagle —Abyssinia. 

lilack Fox— tile north of Europe, Siberia, 
North America. 

Ulnck Lend—ice Plumbago. 

/Hack Suian —Botany Bay. 

Baa Const act 01 —Alrica, South America, 
i tuiia. 

Bole, or Lemnion F.arth— Isle of Lemnos, 
Armenia, Italy, France, Silesia, and South 
Amei ica. 

borax or Tincal —a salt found in a erys 
tallized state at the bottom of certain lakes 
in Thibet, Persia, China, South America, 
and Europe. 

Box-wood— Spain. Turkey. 

Brandy —France (chiefly in Cognac and 
Nantes) ; also iu England, but of inferior 
quality. 

Brast —a compound metal made of cop¬ 
per and the calamine stone. 

Brazil-wood— brazil (Pernambuco), and 
other parts of America; the East Indies. 

Bread —the flour of wheat, mixed with 
salt, yeast, and water. 

Bread-fruit —Olaheite, and other South- 
Sea Islands. 

Buffalo— Asia, Africa, America. 

butter —a rich oily substance, made from 
cream. 

Burgundy ll'ine —France, 

CAJEPUT OIL —East India Island*. 

Calabash Tree —the East Indies, Ame¬ 
rica, West Indies. 

Cnlamander Hood (scarce and beautiful) 
—Ceylon. 

Camel— Usbec Tartary, Siberia, Thibet, 
China. 

Cameteopard — Africa, Sennaar, Abys¬ 
sinia, Ethiopia, and the neighbourhood of 
the Cape of Good Hope. 

Camphor (a vegetable product)—China, 
Japan, and the East Indian Isles, Borneo, 
and Ceylon. 

Canary Bird— Africa, theCanary Islands, 
Italy, and Greece. 

Cantliarides, or Spanish Fly (a kind of 
beetle, used in making blisters)—Spaiu, 
Italy, and south of France. 

Cape Madeira /Fine—the Cape of Good 
Hope. 

Capers (the buds of a plant)—the south 
of France, Italy, the Levant. 

Capsicum (a pepper plant)—East Indies, 
Mexico, South America, West Indies. 

Caraivay Seeds —Essex, Kent, Suffolk. 

Cardamom Seeds —East I ndies (Malabar). 

Carmine —a colour prepared from cochi¬ 
neal (which see). 

Cashew Nut —South America, West In¬ 
dies. 

Cassada , Cassava (an edible root)—South 
America and the W est ladies. 

Cassia (an aromatic bark)—China, East 
Indies, South America, West Indies. 

Castor Oil (from the seeds of a species of 
palm)—the East Indies, South America, 
west Indies. 

Cat’s Bye (a kind of gem)—Ceylon, Si- 

ktris. 


Catechu (a vegetable extract)—East In¬ 
dies (Bombay, Bengal). 

Caviare (a food made from the roes of 

sturgeon)—Russia. 

Cedar —Syria, chiefly about Mount Li 
bauus. The red cedar, used iu making 
black lead pencils, is a native of North 
America, the West Indies, and Japan. 

Cayenne Pepper — East Indies, South 
America, West Indies. 

Chameleon —Egypt and Barbary, India, 
Mexico, Guiana. 

Chamois (toot —the Alps and the Pyrenees. 

Champagne tVine —France. 

Charcoal —wood half burned. 

Cheese —food made from milk curds. 

Chesnuts —Italy, France, Spain, Portugal. 

Chiccory, or Succory (often largely sub¬ 
stituted for coffee)—indigenous in England 
and most parts of Europe. 

Chigoe , or Chigger (a species of flea that 
breeds under the skin)—South America. 

Chinchilla (fur)—Chili, 

Chocolate (cacao)—Mexico, South Ame¬ 
rica, West indies. 

Chrysolite —a precious stone of a dusky 
green colour, with a cast of yellow. 

Cliunam —the name given in India to 
burnt shells, and employed in the compo¬ 
sition of Betel. 

Cider —a pleasant drink prepared from 
apples. 

Cinnabar (a red paint)—the Palatinate of 
Germany, lndria iu Bohemia, and Alma- 
den iu Spain. 

Cinnamon (the bark of c tree)—the East 
Indies (chiefly Ceylon), Cocniu China, 
and South America. 

Citron —Europe (Genoa, Florence, fkc.), 
Asia, West Indies. 

Civet (an animal perfume)—Africa (coast 
of Guinea), India, Brazils. 

Claret IVi ne—the neighbourhood of the 
Garonne, on the western coast of France. 

Cloves (the blossom buds of the clove 
tree)—the Molucca Islands (chiefly Am- 
boyna); the Isles of France and Bourbon ; 
South America (Cayenne). 

Cocculus I adieus, or Indian Berry —Cey¬ 
lon. It is poisonous and intoxicating. 

Cochineal (an insect used iu dyeiug and 

ainting)—the East Indies, Mexico, South 

merica. 

Cockatoo —East Indies, and the islandso( 
the Indian Ocean; Banda, Ceram, the 
Philippines, and Sunda Isles. 

Cocoa, or Cacao (the herry of a tree, em¬ 
ployed in the manufacture of chocolate)— 
'Vest Indies and South America. 

Cocoa-nut — the East Indies, Arabia, 
Africa, South America, W est Indies. 

Cock-roach (a kind of beutle)—Asia, 
America, West Indies. 

Coffee (the roasted berry of a tree)—Ara 
bia (Mocha), East Indies, West Indies. 

Condor (a large bird of prey)—South 
America. 

Constantin ff'inc—Constantia Farm, at 
the Cape of Good Hope. 

Copaiva Balsam —S. America, W. Indies. 

Copal (a kind of resin)—Alrica (Guiana) 
aud America. 






ANIMAL, VEGETABLE, AND MINERAL PRODUCTIONS 


Lotus (a species of vrater lily)—the hot 
parts of Africa, East Indies, America. 

Lynx (a species of cat)—the north of 
Europe, Asia, and America. 

MACCA RONl —Italy, Sicily, Germany. 
Maccaroni is the same substance as vermi¬ 
celli, ouly that the latter is made into 
smaller tubes. 

Macaw —South America, West Indies. 
Mace (a thin membranous substance en¬ 
veloping the nutmeg)—the Banda Isles. 

Madder (a root used in dyeing)—the 
south of Europe, Holland, England. 
Madeira IVine —the Island of Madeira. 
Magnet —see Loadstone. 

Mahogany —Jamaica (the best), Cuba, 
Hayti, the Bahama Islands, Houduras, 
Panama, South America. 

Maize —America (particularly Mexico), 
and other warm climates; Italy, Germany. 

Malmsey Wine — Malvesia, one of the 
Grecian Islands. 

Malt —barley steeped in water aud dried 
by fire. 

Manganese (a species of calcareous earth) 
— Sweden, Germany, France, England 
(Devonshire and Somersetshire). 

Mangel Wurzel , or Field Beet —France, 
Germany, Switzerland, and Great Britain. 

Mangrove (a tree)—Asia, Africa, and 
South America, between the tropics. 

Manna (a vegetable product)—the S. of 
Europe, particularly Sicily and Calabria. 

Maple-Sugar —Europe and North Ame¬ 
rica. 

Marble —Spain, France, Italy, Sweden, 
Norway, the Island of Paros, England 
(Devonshire and Derbyshire), Scotland, 
See. The statuary marble is from Paros 
and Carrara. 

Mastic (a kind of resin)—the Island of 
Scio, the Levant. 

Medlars —Europe and Asia. 

Molasses —the West Indies. 

Melons —Asia, the south of Europe, 
Egypt, Arabia, America, West Indies. 
Mercury— see Quicksilver. 

Mica (a kind of argillaceous earth)—Si¬ 
beria, Bengal, Malabar, Russia, Finland, 
Sweden, Saxony, See. 

Millet Seed —the south of Europe, Africa, 
the East Indies. 

Mocho S tone —the East (the most valu¬ 
able), Iceland, the Palatinate of the Rhine, 
and other parts of Europe. 

A/oney-metal coined for the purposes of 
commerce. 

Monkeys —South America, and the hot¬ 
test regions of Asia and Africa. 

Morocco Leather —the Levant, Barbary, 
Spain, France, Flanders. 

Morse —see Walrus. 

Mortar —a cement made of lime, hair, 
and water. 

Mosquitoes (a species of gnat) — the hot 
parts of Europe, Asia, Africa, and Ame¬ 
rica. 

Mother-of-Pearl (the lining of the pearl- 
mussePs shell)—the Red Sea, East indies, 
America. 

Mountain Wine —Malaga. 


r Mulberry —Italy (black), China (white), 
Virginia (red), the F.nst Indies, Japan, 
Siberia, Russia, East Florida. 

Munjeet (a species of madder) — East 
Indies. 

Muscadel Wine — Languedoc, in France. 

Mtisk (an auimal odoriferous substance' 
—Siberia, Persia, Thibet, 1 oiiquin,Cochin 
China. 

Musk Or—North America. 

Myrrh (a gum resin)—the coast of the 
Red Sea, (Arabia, Abyssinia, &c.) 

NAPHTHA (a highly inflammable fluid 
bitumen)—Baku, on the shore of the Cas¬ 
pian Sea, Persia, Media, Tartary, China, 
Italy, Peru. 

Natron (soda) — Denmark, Hungary, 
Switzerland, Egypt, China, Bengal, Per¬ 
sia, Syria, South America. 

Nautilus Argonaut a —the Mediterranean, 
African, and Indian Seas. 

Nicaragua, or Peach-wood (used in dye¬ 
ing) — South America, near the lake of 
Nicaragua. 

Nitre (a neutral salt, the chief ingre¬ 
dient in gunpowder) — Spain, France, 
Naples, Egypt, the East ludies, South 
America, Cic. 

Nut-galls —Plants brought from Aleppo, 
in the Levant. 

Nutmegs (the kernels of a large fruiO — 
the Molucca Islands, Sumatra, Penang, 
South America (Cayenne). 

Am Vomica (a fruit of the size of an 
orange, aud a virulent poison) —East 
indies. 

OLIVES — Portugal, Spain, France, 
(Provence), Italy, Northern Africa, Mex¬ 
ico. 

Onyx—the East Indies, Siberia, Bohe¬ 
mia, Saxony, Portugal. 

Opium (a concreted juice, obtained from 
a species ol poppy) — Arabia, Persia, aud 
other warm regious of Asia ; especially the 
East Indies. 

Opoponax (a gum resin)—Asia Minor. 

Opossum —America. 

Orang-Outang— Africa. 

Oranges — Spain, Majorca, Portugal, 
Italy, Genoa, Nice, the Azores (St. Mi¬ 
chael), America, West ludies. Oranges 
for wine, from Seville, in Spain. 

Orchilla IVeed, or Archil (furnishing • 
purple dye) — Canary Islands, Madeira, 
Barbary, and the Levant. 

Orpimenl (yellow arsenic) — Hungary, 
Georgia,Turkey.the Levant,Great Britain. 

Orris-root —Italy, and other parts of the 
south of Europe. 

Ostrich— the torrid regions of Asia and 
Africa, South America. 

Otlar of Roses —Arabia, Persia, Turkey, 
East Indies. 

Ounce — the torrid parts of Africa, and 
Asia. 

PALM-OIL TREE —South America. 

Puper —Linen rags, &c. beaten to a pulp 
in water, and subsequently pressed through 
a machine. 





ANIMAL, VEGETABLE, AND MINERAL PRODUCTIONS. 


Panther — Africa, and the hot parts of 
Asia. 

Papyrus (a plantwhich formed thepaper 
of early times)—Egypt, Abyssinia, Ethi¬ 
opia, Syria, Sicily, Madagascar. 

Parchment —the inner skins of sheep or 
goats. 

Parrots, Parroquets — Africa, East In¬ 
dies, South America, West Indies. 

Pearls —(a gem produced hy a species of 
Oyster or mussel)—Arabia, Persia, the East 
Indies (Ceylon), America, (the Gulfs of 
Mexico and California, &c.) 

Pearl-ashes —America. 

Pelican —South America (Guiana), all 
the warm latitudes of the old and new Con¬ 
tinents, the lakes of Judaea and Egypt, and 
the rivers Nile and Strymon. 

Penguin —the South Sea Islands.Europe, 
America. 

Pepper (the produce of a shrub)—the 
East Indies, America, West Indies, Cape 
of Good Hope. 

Peruvian Bark —South America (Peru 
and Quito). 

Petrolium (rock-oil)—the East Indies, 
Persia, Media, Siberia, France, England, 
Germany, Spain, Italy. 

Pewtei —a mixture of brass, lead, and 
tin. 

Pimento, Allspice, or Jamaica Pepper— 
the West Indies, particularly Jamaica. 

Pine Apple — Mexico, South America, 
the hot parts of Africa, India, Jamaica, 

ti.C. 

Pitch (tar boiled to a state of dryness) — 
Sweden and Norway. 

Plantain (a fruit)—Africa, South Ame¬ 
rica, est 1 ndies. 

Platina — South America (near Quito, 
Santa Fe, and Choco). 

Plumbago {n well-known mineral)—Eng¬ 
land (Cumberland), and several countries 
on the Continent, America. 

Pomegianate —Spain, Italy, Northern 
Africa, the West Indies, and other hot cli¬ 
mates. 

Porcupine— Spain, Italy, India, Persia, 
South 1 artary, Africa, South America. 

Porphyry —Egypt, Italy, Germany, and 
other parts of the Continent. 

Port Wine— Oporto, in Portugal. 

Potash —Russia. 

/’nines and Prunellas — France (the 
neighboui hood of Marseilles). 

Ptarmigan (white grouse)—the moun¬ 
tainous parts of Europe and Siberia. 

Pumice Stone —the neighbourhood of Ve¬ 
suvius, and other volcanoes. 

Pumpkin —Europe (Germany), America. 

Putchock (a root which when burnt 
yields a fragrant smoke) — China and 
India. 

Purzolano )a cementitious earth)—Italy 
(about Naples and Rome). 

QUAGGA (a quadruped of the horse 
species)—South America. 

Quassia (the root, hark, and wood of a 
tree) — South America (especially Suri¬ 
nam), and the West Indies. 

Quicksilver — Ionia Hungary, Spain, 


Italy, East Indies, North and South Arne 

rica. 

RACCOON (a species of badger) — 
North America, Jamaica. 

Raisins—{jar and of the sun) Spain and 
Turkey, {Malaga r.) Spain, (Smyrna r.) 
Asia Minor. 

Rattan Cane— the East India Islands. 

Rattlesnake— America. 

Rein Deer —Lapland, British America, 
Greenland. 

Resin (the residue from the distillation 
of the oil of turpentine)—Sweden and Nor¬ 
way. 

Rhenish Wine— the hanks of the Rhine. 

Rliinoceros— Africa, East Indies (Ben¬ 
gal, Java, Sumatra, Ceylon). 

Rhubarb (the root of a tree)—Asiatic 
Turkey, Russia, China, Persia, 'lanary, 
the East Indies. 

Rice —Asia (East Indies and China), 
Egypt, and the North ot Africa, America, 
(the best from Carolina), Spain, Italy, 
Turkey. 

Rock Salt— England (Cheshire), Italy, 
Poland, America. » 

Rose-wood — Jamaica, the Canary Is¬ 
lands. 

Rosin —’Turpentine reduced hy distilla¬ 
tion to a dry stale. 

Rota H ine —Rota, in Spain. 

Ruby (a red sparkling getn) —the East 
Indies (Ceylon), Peru, Brazil. 

Rum —Jamaica, and other West India 
Islands. 

SABLE (a species of ferret)—Siberia, 
Kamtschatka, and the northern parts of 
Europe and America. 

Safflower, or Bastard Saffron — India, 
Egypt, America, and south of Europe. 

Saffron (the root of a plant used m me¬ 
dicine. and the arts)—Egypt, England, 
France, and Spain. 

Sagapenum (a concrete gunt-resin) — 
Smyrna. 

Sago (a fecula obtained from the pith of 
a species of palm)—Africa, Malabar, and 
the East Indian Islands. 

Sol Ammoniac—India, Persia, Isle of 
Bourbon, Egypt, the neighbourhood of 
P^tna, Vesuvius, Ilecla, and other volca¬ 
noes, the Lipari Islands, Sic. 

Salep (a larinaceous powder, from the 
root of a species of oclnr)—lurkeyaud 
the Levant. 

Saltpetre (a nitre or salt extracted from 
earths)—see Nitre. 

Sandal Hood —the East Indies (Malabar, 
Timor). 

Sandaracli (the gum-resin of which 
pounce is made)—the south of Europe. 

Sapi>hire (a beautiful sky-coloured pre¬ 
cious stone) — Brazil, the East Indies, 
Persia, Bohemia, France. 

Sardonyx— 1 eeland, the Feroe Islands, 
Bohemia, Saxony, Ceylon. 

Sarsaparilla (the root of a plant) — 
North America. 

Sassafras (the root, wood, and bark of a 
tree)—North America. 



ANIMAL, VEGETABLE, AND MINERAL PRODUCTIONS 


Copper —Anglesea ami Cornwall, Swe¬ 
den, Norway, Iceland, and the Feroe ^ 
Islands, and various parts of the Conti- : 
nent; China and Japan, Southern Africa, i 
North America, Peru, and Chili. 

Copperas —a metallic salt, formed by the I 
action of sulphuric acid on iron. 

Coral (a marine animal production)—the J 
Mediterranean (about Sicily, Majorca, and ■ 
Minorca) ; the Red Sea; oif the coast of | 
Africa ; in the South Seas, See. 

Coral Snake— America. 

Coriander Seeds —the South of Europe ; 
England (Kent, Essex, and other parts). 

Cork (the bark of a tree)—Portugal, 
Spain, and other parts in the South of Eu¬ 
rope ; Sicily (on Mount Etna), and the 
shores of the Mediterranean. 

Cornelian,or Cornelian (a precious stone, 
of which there are three colours, red, yel¬ 
low, and white)—the East Indies, Arabia, 
Egypt, various parts of l.urope, and seve¬ 
ral of the British shores. 

Colton —the Levant, Egypt, the East In¬ 
dies, North and South America, West In¬ 
dies. The finest from Bengal, and the 
coast of Coromandel. 

Crabs’-eyes (a cerebral concretion in a 
kind of crab-fish)—the river Don, in Russia. 

Cranberries, or Red Whortleberries — 
Russia, North America, New South Wales, 
and parts of Scotland and England. 

Crocodile —Africa (the rivers Nile and 
Senegal, and all the rivers of Guinea); In¬ 
dia (the Gauges). 

„ Crystal (a kind of gem)—Madagascar, 
South America (Brazil, Guiana), Norway, 
the Alps, Scotland. 

Currants —the islands of the Grecian 
Archipelago, particularly Zaute and Ce- 
phalonia. 

Cypress —the East of Europe, the Le¬ 
vant, Asia, America. 

DATES —Egypt, the African coast ofthe 
Mediterranean, Arabia, the East Indies, 
Persia, Spam and Italy. 

Deals —Norway, and other northern parts 
of Flu rope. 

Diamonds (the hardest and most valu¬ 
able precious stone)—the East Indies (Gol- 
conda, Raolcouda, BnViieo), Mexico, 
Brazil. 

Dolphin —the European and Pacific Seas. 

Dragon’s lilood (a kind of resin)—Japan, 
Cochin China, Java, and other parts of 
the East. 

Dromedary —the deserts of Arabia and 
other parts of Asia and of Af rica. 

EBONY-WOOD — the East Indies, 
(chiefly Ceylon), and W est Indies. 

Edible Bird-nests —Sumatra, Cap-and- 
button Isles, China. 

Eider down (from the Eider duck)—the 
north of Europe (chiefly Iceland), Asia, 
America. 

Elephant —Africa and the East Indies. 
The most esteemed are those of Ceylon. 

Ellc or HI nose Dee i—North America, 
some parts of Europe, and Asia, as far 
south as Japan. 


Emerald (a beautiful green stone)— 
Egypt and Ethiopia, Russia, the coniines 
of Persia, Mexico, Peru 

Emery (a mineral used in polishing steel, 
&c.) —the Levant,Naxos,and other Grecian 
islands, Germany, Guernsey, Spain, Italy. 

Ermine (a species of ferret)—Norway, 
Lapland, Finland, North America, Si¬ 
beria, China. 

Eslrich, or Eslridge (the fine soft down 
of tile ostrich)—the Levant, Italy, &c. 

Euphorbium (a concrete gum-resin)— 
Africa. 

FAN BAL If—the south of Europe, the 
East Indies (Malabar and Ceylon), Japan, 
Cochin China. 

Figs— Italy, the I.evant, Turkey, the 
Grecian islands, Portugal, Spain, the 
south of France. 

Fire-fly —South America (Guiana), In 
dia, Japan. 

Fitchet (a species of weasel)—India, 
New South Wales. 

Flamingo— Africa, South America, West 
Indies. 

Flax —a beautiful plant, with slender 
stalks, small leaves, and blue blossoms, 
cultivated in rich grounds in every quarter 
of the globe. 

Flying Fish —inhabits tile European and 
American seas, also the Red Sea, but is 
found chiefly between the tropics. 

Flying Squirrel —North America. 

Frankincense (a kind of gum)—Arabia. 

French Pimm —chiefly from Bordeaux. 

Frontignac Wine —Languedoc in France. 

Fuller’s Earth —Sweden, Saxony, Portu¬ 
gal, England (Kent, Surrey, Sussex, Bed¬ 
ford : the finest and most plentiful at 
Wavedon, near Woburn' 

GALBANUM (a species of gum resin) 
Cape of Good Hope, Syria, Persia. 

Galls (a vegetable excrescence)—Asia 
Minor and Syria; the best from Aleppo. 

Gamboge (a resinous gum)—Toiiqutn, 
the East Indies. 

Garnet (a precious stone of a deep red 
colour)—Bohemia, and other parts of Eu¬ 
rope, Madagascar, Ethiopia, India, Syria. 

Gas —inflammable air produced from 
coal. 

Gazelle —India, Persia, Egypt, Ethiopia. 

Gentian (a hitter root)—the Alps, and 
other mountainous parts of the Continent. 

Gin —originally at Schiedam, a village 
near Rotterdam, in Holland, and hence 
vulgarly called “Hollands.” Common Gin, 
a deleterious mixture, made in great quan¬ 
tities in England. 

Ginger tan aromatic root)—the East 
indies (near Calicut), W'est Indies, Abys¬ 
sinia, coasts of Guinea. 

Ginseng —China, Tartary, N. America. 

Giraffe —see Cameteopard, 

Glass —a transparent substance produced 
from sand, flints, and alkaline salts. 

Glue —the sinews and feet of animals 
boiled down to a strong jelly. 

Gnu (a species of antelope)—Africa (th# 
plains behind the Capa of Good Hope), 




ANIMAL, VEGETABLE, AND MINERAL PRODUCTIONS. 


Golf/—Asia (Arabia, India, Java, Suma- I 
tra, Pegu, China, Japan, Siberia'; Africa, j 
Mexico, Brazil, Peru, Chili. 

Holden Logie —Europe, Siberia, Abys¬ 
sinia. 

Gulden Pheasant —China. 

Gomuti (a valuable product resembling 
black horsehair, found in a species of 
palm)—Amboyna, Java, &c. 

Gourd —India,America, south of Europe. 

Gvapes —France, Portugal, &c., in great 
perfection ; not so in England and other 
less genial climates. 

Guano (a species of manure, supposed to 
be the excrements of sea-birds, found in 
prodigious swarms along the Columbian 
and Bolivian shores)—South America. 

Guava (a fruit)—the West Indies. 

Guiacum —the resin of the lignum-vit •* 
tree—which see. 

Guinea Fowl —Africa. 

Gum Arabic —Egypt, Barbary, Turkey, 
Persian Gulf. 

Gum-lac —the produce of an insect in 
Assam. 

Gunpowder —a composition of saltpetre, 
sulphur, and charcoal. 

Gutla Percha (a vegetable substance de¬ 
rived from the sap and juice of a tree)—the 
island of Singapore, and the forests of the 
Malayan peninsula. 

Gypsum —Spain, Italy, England, Ame¬ 
rica. 

HARTSHORN—the raspings are used 
medicinally for jelly and salts. 

Heliotrope or Bloodstone —Siberia, Per¬ 
sia, Bukharia. 

Hemp (a plant furnishing cordage) — Rus¬ 
sia, and other parts of Europe (the best 
from Riga), America, the East Indies, ami 
some parts of England. 

Herrings —from the highest northern 
latitudes to the coast of France. 

Hickory Nut —North America. 

Hippopotamus —all the lakes and consi¬ 
derable rivers in Africa. 

Hock Wine —Hoekstedt, in Suabia. 

Hops —the flower of an English plant. 

Humming Bird —South America (Gui¬ 
ana) and the West Indies. 

Hyamala species of wild dog)—the East, 
Persia, Africa. 

ICHNEUMON (a species of weasel)— 
Egypt, Barbary, the south of Asia, and the 
Indian Islands. 

Incense (a resinous perfume)—America. 

Indian Rubber, Caoulchotic, or Elastic 
Gum (the inspissated resinous juice of a 
tree)—Guiana, and other parts of South 
America. 

Indian Wheat —see Maize. 

Indigo (a deep blue vegetable dye)—East 
Indies, Africa, America, West indies. 

Ink —a liquid made of galls, copperas, 
gum, and water. 

Ipecacuanha (a kind of root, used chiefly 
as an emetic) —South America (Brazil) 
and the West Indies. 

Iron —Sweden, Norway, Russia, Eng¬ 
land, Scotland, North America, Africa. 


Isinglass (fish glue)—Russia. 

Ivory —Asia (Acliem and Ceylon) and 
Africa (Guinea, and the Cape of Good 

Hope). 

Ivory Black— the shavings of ivory burnt 
in a crucible to a black powder. 

JACK ALL (a species of wild dog)—Afri¬ 
ca, and the warm parts of Asia. 

Jack Fruit— Malabar, and other parts ol 
the East ludies. 

Jalap ^a purgative root)—chiefly from 
Xalapa, m Mexico. 

Jasper — Egypt, Siberia, Spain, Sicily, 
Hungary, Bohemia, Saxony, Silesia, 
Mexico. . . 

Jet — various parts of Great Britain, 

P articularly the Suffolk coast, Germany, 
ranee, Spain. 

Juniper Berries (from which Holland 
giu is distilled)—Sweden, Holland, Ger¬ 
many, the south of Europe, Asia, America. 

KANGAROO —Australasia. 

Kelp (a substance formed of marine 
plants, soda being the chief ingredient) — 
was until lately manufactured in the 
western islands of Scotland, but since the 
duties on salt and barilla have been re¬ 
pealed, it is no longer required. 

Kennes (an insect very similar to the 
Mexican cochineal, and which is found 
upon the quercus ilex, a species of oak)— 
Spain, France, the Levant, 8tc. 

Kino (a gum, the produce of certain 
trees)—East and West Indies, Africa, and 
Australia. 

LAC (a vegetable substance prepared by 
an insect)—the East Indies (Bengal), As¬ 
sam, &c. 

Lantern Fly —Surinam, and other parts 
of South America. 

Lapis Lazuli (a kind of siliceous earth) 
—Siberia, China, Tartary, America, ana 
various parts of Europe. 

Laudanum —a preparation from opium. 
Lead —Spain, Englaud, Scotland, and 
Ireland. 

Leather —the skins of animals tauned 
and dressed. 

Lemons —Portugal, Spain, France, Italy* 
the Levant, Arabia, Jamaica, Mexico, East 
Florida. 

Leopard —Senegal, Guinea, and other 
parts of Africa. 

Lignum Fitce —the West Indies, chiefly 
Jamaica. 

Limes —North America, West Indies. 
Linseed Oil —made from the seeds of flax. 
Lion —Africa, India, Persia, Japan. 
Llama, (a species of camel)—Peru and 
Chili. 

Loadstone —Denmark, Sweden, Norway, 

Lapland. 

Locust —inhabits Tartary, and migrates 
in incredible swarms inti}, various parts 
of Europe and Africa. 

Logwood (bark of a tree)—Honduras and 
the West Indies. 

Lory (a beautiful species of parrot)—tha 
j Molucca Islands, Java, and New Guinea. 





ANIMAL, VEGETABLE, AND MINERAL PRODUCTIONS. 


Scorpion —Africa, India, Persia, South 
America. 

Seal —the north of Europe, Greenland, 
and the Arctic Sea, and the lower parts of 
South America, in huth oceans. 

Senna (the leaves of a plant)—Arabia, 
Persia, tipper Egypt, imported from Alex¬ 
andria. 

Sen.Hire Pleint —America. 

Shaddock fa species of citron)—East In¬ 
dies, \1 est Indies. 

Shagreen fa grained leather prepared 
from the skin of a species of shark)— Con¬ 
stantinople, I anris, Tripoli, Algiers, and 
some parts of Poland. 

Shark —the Atlantic, and the seas of all 
hot climates 

Shea , or Vegetable Butler Tree —Africa. 
Sherry Wine —Xcres, in Spain. 

Shumac, or Sumach (a plant used in 
dyeing and tanning) — Spain, Portugal, 
the Levant. 

Silk (the woven web of a sort of cater¬ 
pillar)—Spain, the south of France, Italy, 
the Levant, Persia, Chiua, and the East 
Indies. 

_ Silvei —Africa, Mexico, Peru (Potosi), 
Spain. Germany. Siberia, Sweden, Nor¬ 
way (Kouigsburg), England (in the lead 
mines). 

Silver Bear —the confines of Russia. 

Size —the shreds and parings of leather 
and parchment boiled in water. 

Sloth —South America (Guiana), India. 
Smaltz, or Smalt (a beautiful deep blue 
colour, produced from an oxide of cohalt, 
and of great use in the painting of porce¬ 
lain, &c.)—Germany, Norway. 

Snuff— tobacco leaves ground into pow¬ 
der. 

Soy (a liquid condiment prepared from a 
kind of pulse)—China and Japan. 

Spermaceti —the produce of the cachalot, 
a large fish of the whale order, inhabiting 
the European seas, the coast of New Eng¬ 
land, and Davis’s Straits. 

Sponge (a marine animal production) — 
the Archipelago, the Mediterranean, and 
Indian Seas. 

Spoonbill —South America (Brazil, Gui¬ 
ana), Mexico. Jamaica. 

Squill, or Sea Onion (a powerful medi¬ 
cinal plant)—Spain, and the Levant. 

Starch —the sediment of wheat steeped in 
water. 

Storax (a fragrant balsam) — South of 
Europe, and the Levant. 

Stork —Abyssinia, Arabia, Asia. 

Sturgeon —European and American seas. 
Sugar (the produce of a cane)—East 
India Islands, China, West Indies. 

Sulphur— Italy, Sicily, Naples, Spain, 
Norway, Siberia. 

Sweet-oil —made from Indian olives. 
Sword-fish — the Mediterranean, Bra¬ 
zilian, and East Indian Seas. 

TACAMAIIAC (a fragrant balsam) — 
America. . 

Talc —India, and the Tyrol in Europe. 
Tallow— the fat of animals melted and 
purified. 


Tamarinds — Arabia, the East Indies, 
America, West (tidies 

Tapioca (a fecula from the root of the 
cassava plant)—South America, West In 

dies. 

Tapir— South America. 

Tar —Rus.-ia, Sweden, Norway, France, 
Switzerland, America, fkc. 

Tara tula Spider — South of Europe, 
Barhary. 

Tea —China (Pekin, Canton, Nankin), 

Japan, Tnuquiu, and Co; i i China. 

sea,c Wood, or In lian ' - —S-i-t Indies 

(Malabar, Pegu), Ava, Bn ia, Siam. 

7 ‘ent Wine— Malaga, in Spam. 

Tiger — East Indies, China, Japan, 
A*Tira. 

Tiger Cat— Cape of Good Hope, Ame¬ 
rica. 

limber — Norway (Christiana, Dron- 
theim), Memel in Prussia, America. 

Tin — Cornwall, Devonshire, the Scilly 
Islands, Bohemia, Saxony, Silesia, Ma¬ 
lacca, Mexico, Chili. 

Tobacco (the leaves of a plant)—North 
America (Virginia, Maryland), Peru, the 
" est Indies (Cuba).AsiaticTurkey,China, 
Phil ippine Islands. 

Tokay Wine —Tokay in Hungary. 

Tolu Balsam (a fragrant concreted juice) 
—South America (New Grenada). 

Topaz (a yellow gem)—Africa, the East 
Indies, Siberia, Russia, Bohemia, Saxony, 
Mexico, Brazil, &c. 

Tortoise —Africa, Sardinia. 

Tortoise-shell {the shell of the hawk’s- 
bill turtle)—the East indies. South Ame¬ 
rica. 

Toucan (a bird)—Africa, South America 
(Brazil, Cayenne, Guiana). 

Tragacanth (a gum)—Persia, Crete, and 
the islands of the Levant. 

Train-oil —the fat of whales. 

Treacle (a gross fluid obtained in the 
manufacture of sugar)—the West Indies. 

Tripoli (a kind of mineral powder)— 
Africa, Germany. 

Turmeric (a root used in dyeing yellow) 
—the East Indies. 

Turpentine (the resinous product of dif¬ 
ferent species of pine, from which an es¬ 
sential oil is distilled)—North America, 
Russia, Norway, France, Switzerland, 
the Pyrenees, Germany. 

Turquoise (a mineral of a pale sky-blue 
colour)—Persia, Mount Caucasus, Egypt, 
Arabia, Hungary, France (Languedoc). 

Turtle —the West Indies. 

VAMPYRE BAT— East Indian Islands, 
South America (Guiana) ; Guinea, Mada¬ 
gascar, New Holland, New Hebrides, 
Friendly Islands, New Caledonia. 

Vanilla (a plant whose aromatic pods 
are used in the manufacture of chocolate) 
—South America (Guiana), West Indies. 

Verdigris —a copperas substance. 

Vermicelli —see Maccaroni. 

Vicuna (a species of camel)—South Ame¬ 
rica. 

Vinegar — wine, beer, or cider, mads 
sour, and fermented in the sum 







ANIMAL, VEGETABLE, AND MINERAL PRODUCTIONS. 


Vine —South Europe, Canary Islands, 
Africa, North America to latitude 40°, 
Brazil. 

Vitriol —a fossil salt; a mixture of cop¬ 
per with sulphuric acid. 

Vulture— Egypt, Abyssinia, Arabia, Sy¬ 
ria, Persia, S. America (Brazil, Peru, 
Guiana), New Spain, West Indies. 

WA FERS —a mixture of flour, whites of 
eggs, ifinglass, and a little yeast. 

Walrus —the coast of Spitzbergen, Nova 
Zembla, Hudson’s Bay, the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence, and the Icy Sea. 

Wluile —Greenland, Davis’s Straits, the 
Arctic and Antarctic Seas, &.c. 

Wheat —Almost every part of the tempe¬ 
rate zones. Little is grown beyond latitude 
58° in Europe ; but on the Alps it ripens at 
a height of 3300 feet above the level of 
the sea. 

Whisky (a spirit drawn from barley)— 
Scotland and Ireland. 

Whitt Ant —Africa, East and West In¬ 
dies. 

White , or Polar Pear —the shores of 
Hudson’s Bay, Greenland, and Spitzber- 
gen ; Nova Zentbla, and the coast of Si¬ 
beria. 


White (pure white) Bear —Tartary. 

White t,ead —common lead corroded by 
the steam of vinegar. 

Wild Boar —Africa, America. 

Wine (the fermented juice of grapes and 
other fruits)—Port : Douro, in Portugal. 
Sherry: Xeres, Spain. Claret: Bordeaux, 
in France. Champagne : in France. Bur¬ 
gundy: ditto. Madeira: Madeira Islands. 
Malmsey: ditto. Teneriffe: from Tene¬ 
riffe. Marsalai Sicily. Cape: from 
South Africa. 

Wolf— Europe, Asia, Africa, America; 

Wolverine (a species of bear)—America, 
Greenland, Hudson’s Bay, Canada. 

YAMS (the edible roots of a creeping 
plant)—America, West Indies, East In¬ 
dies, Africa. 

ZEDOARY (an aromatic root)—Mala¬ 
bar, Ceylon, Cochin China. 

Zebra (a species of horse, beautifully 
striped)—the plains of Southern Africa. 

Zaffer, or Zafre (a blue powder, similar 
to Smoltz, which see) . 

Zinc, or Spelter (a brilliant metal) — 
America, China. The compounds of zinc 
and copper are very important. 


ABBREVIATIONS, WITH THEIR EXPLANATIONS. 


A. B. or B. A. Artium Baccalaureus, Ba¬ 
chelor of Arts.—Abp. Archt'ishop.—A. C. 
Ante Christum, Before Christ.—Acet. Ac¬ 
count.—A D. Anno Domini, in the Year 
of our Lord.—A. M. Ante Meridiem, Before 
Noon ; or Anno Mundi, In the Year of the 
World.—Anon. Anonymous.—A. P.G. Pro¬ 
fessor of Astronomy in Gresham College.— 
A. U. C- Anno Urbis Conditre, in the Year 
of the City; i. e. the building of Rome.— 

B. Bas.so, Bass.— Bart. Baronet.— B. C. 
Before Christ.—B C. L Bachelor of Civil 
Law.—B. D. Baccalaureus Divinitatis, Ba¬ 
chelor of Divinity.— B. L. Baccalaureus 
Legum, Bachelor of Laws.— B. M. Bacca- 
laureus Medicines, Bachelor of Medicine.— 
Bp. Bishop.—B. R- Banco Regis, the 
King’s Bench.—B. V. Beata Virgo, blessed 
Virgin. 

C. or Cap. Caput, Chapter.—C. or Cent. 
Centum, a Hundred.—C B. Companion of 
the Bath.—C. C. Cains College.—C C. C. 
Corpus Christi College.—Capt. Captain.— 
Ch. C. Christchurch.—Co. Company.— 
Col. Colonel.—Coll. College.—C. P. Com¬ 
mon Pleas.—C. P. S. Castas Privali Sigilli, 
Keeper of the Privy Seal.—Cr. Creditor.— 
Ct. Count.—Cwt. a Hundred-weight. 

D. D. Divinitatis Doctor, Doctor of Di¬ 
vinity.—Dec. December.—Deg. Degree.— 
Deut. Deuteronomy.— Do. ditto, the same. 
—Dr. Doctor, or Debtor.— Dwt. a Penny- 
Weight.— d, denarius, a penny. 


E. East.—Eccl. Ecclesiastes.—Eccleg. 
Ecclesiaslicus. — E. E. English Ells.— 
E.G. Exempli Gratia, for Example.—Ep. 
Epistle.—Eph. Ephesians.—E. 1. M. Coll. 
East-lndia MilitarvCollege.—Esq. Esquire. 
—Ex. Examplc.or Exodus.—F.xr.Executor. 

F. Fiat, let it be done; or Forte, strong. 
—F. A. S. Fraternitatis Antiquariorum So¬ 
das, Fellow of rile Antiquarian Society.— 
FI. E. Flemish Ells.—Fell. February.—Fig. 
Figure.—F. G. S. Feliow of the Geological 
Society.—F. H. S. Fellow of the Horticul¬ 
tural Society.— F. L. S. Fraternitat is Lin - 
neana; Socitis, Fellow of the Linnsean So¬ 
ciety.—Fo. folio.—F. R. S. Fraternitatis 
Regia Socins, Fellow of the Royal Society. 
— F. It. S. A S. Fraternitatis Regia: So- 
cius et Associatus, Fellow and Associate of 
the Royal Society.—F. S. A. Fraternitatis 
Artium Socius, Fel.ow of the Society of 
Arts. 

Gal.Galatians.—Gall, gallon*.—G. C. B 
Knight Grand Cross of the hath.—Gen. 
Genesis, or General.—Gent. Gentleman. 
—G. It. Georgius Rer, King George. 

11. M. S Her Majesty’s Ship, or Her 
Majesty’s Service.-—II. or hr. hours.—Hcb. 
Hebrews.—Hhd. hogsheads.—H. P. Hall- 
Pay. 

J. II. S. Jemis Hominum Salrator, Jesus 
the Saviour of Men.—lb. or i'-id, ibidem, 
in the same place.— l.e. id est, that is.— 
Incog, incognito, unknown.—lu. inches-—- 








ABBREVIATION*, WITH THEIR EXPLANATIONS 


Int. interest.—Inst. Instant, or of this 
Month. 

K. A. Knight of St. Andrew (Russia).— 

K. A. N. Knight of Alexander Newski (Rus¬ 
sia).—K. B. Knight of the Bath.—K. B. E. 
Knight of the Black Eagle (Russia).'—K. 
C. Knight of the Crescent (Turkey).—K. 
C. B. Knight Commander of the Bath.— 
K. G. F. Knight of the Golden Fleece 
(Spain).— K. G. V. Knight of Gustavus 
Vasa (Sweden).—K. M. Knight of Malta.— 
K. P. Knight of St. Patrick.— K. M.T. 
Knight of St. Maria Theresa (Austria).— 

K. N. S. Knight of the Royal North Star 
(Sweden).—K. S. Knight of the Sword 
(Sweden).—K. R. E. Knight of the Red 
Eagle (Russia).—K. S. A. Knight of St. 
Anne (Russia).—K. S. E. Knight of St. 
Esprit (France).—K. S. F. Knight of Fer¬ 
dinand of Sicily.—K_. S. G. Knight of St. 
Georgia (Russia).—K. S. I.. Knight of the 
Sii 11 and Lion (Persia).—K. S. P. Knight 
of St. Stanislaus (Poland).—K. S. VV. 
Knight of St. VValdimer (Russia).—K. T. 
Knight of the Thistle.—K. T. S. Knight 
of the Tower and Sword (Portugal).— 
Kt. Knight.—K. VV. Knight of VVilliam 
(Netherlairds). 

L. libra, a pound.—L. or lib. liber, a 
book.—L. D. Lady-Day.—Ldp. Lordship. 
—Lev. Leviticus.—Lieut. Lieutenant.—L. 

L. D. Legum Doctor, Doctor of Laws.— 

L. S. Locus Sigilli, the place of the Seals. 

M. A. Artium Magister, Master of Arts, 
—Mac. Maccabees.—Mai. Malachi.—Matt. 
Matthew.—M. B. MedicintE Baccalanreus, 
Bachelor of Physic; or Musicie Baccalau¬ 
reus, Bachelor of Music.—M. D. Medicinee 
Doctor, Doctor of Physic.—Mem. memen¬ 
to, remember.—Mess. Messieurs, Gentle¬ 
men.—M. I’. Member of Parliament.—Mr. 

M. ster.—Mrs. Mistress —MS. manuscrip- 
turn, manuscript. — MSS. manuscripta, 
manuscripts.—M. mi lie, a thousand; and. 


In a recipe, fbr manipnlus, a handful( 
misce, mingle; and mixtura, a mixture. 

N. north, or note.—N. B. nota bene, take 
notice.—Nem. con. or Nem. diss. nemine 
contradicente, or nemine dissentiente , una¬ 
nimously.—No. numero, number.—Nov. 
November.— N. S. New Style.—Numb. 
Numbers. 

Obt. obedient.—Oct. October.—O. S. Old 
Style.—Oxon. Oxford.—Oz. ounces. 

Pari. Parliament.—Percent, per centum, 
by the hundred.—Pet. Peter.—Phil. Philip- 
pians.—P. M. post meridiem, afternoon.— 
P. M. G. Professor of Music in Gresham 
College.—Pres. President.—P. R. S. Presi¬ 
dent of the Royal Society.— Prof. Professor. 
—P. S. post scriptum, postscript.—Prob. 
Problem.—Prop. Proposition.—Ps. Psalms. 

Q. Question.—Q. 1). quasi dictum, as if 
it were said.—Q. E. D. quod erat demon¬ 
strandum, which was to be demonstrated. 
—Q. E. F. quod erat faciendum, which was 
to be done.—Q. PL. quantum placet, as 
much as you jplease.—Qr. quarter —Q. S. 
quantum sufficit, a sufficient quantity.—Q. 
V. quantum vis, as much as you will; or, 
quod vide, which see.—Qy. Query. 

R. Bex, King.—R. A. Royal Academi¬ 
cian.—Rec. recipe, take.—Reed, received. 
—Reel. Rector.— Rev. Revelations, or Re¬ 
verend.—R. N. Royal Navy.—R. M. Royal 
Marines.—Rom. Romans.—Rt. Hon. Right 
Honourable.—Rt.VV pfui.RightVVorshipfiil. 

S. Socius; S'ocielatis; Solidus, or Shill 
ing; South.—St. Saint, or street.—Sec. 
Secretary, or seconds.—Sept. September.— 
Sol. Solomon, or solution.—Sr. Sir.—Sq. 
square. 

Th. Theoltgy—Theor. theorem.—Tim. 
Timothy.— f t. Titus, 

V. or vide, see.—Viz. videlicet, namely.— 
V. verse.—U1 ..ultimo, the last,or last month. 

Xmas.Chr stmas.—Xn.Christian.—Xper 
Christopher.—Xuty. Christianity. 


TITLES AND DISTINCTIONS. 


Emperor —A title given to the supreme 
ruler of a large extent of country, com¬ 
posed of various nations and people. 

King —A title given to the head or chief 
ruler of a country. 

Sultan —A title of the emperor of the 
Turks. 

Bey —The governor of a town in the 
Turkish empire. 

Duke —I he Inghesttitle of honour among 
the English nobility. 

Marquis —1 he title of honour next below 
d ii u k 6 ■ 

Earl—l he title of honour next below a 
marquis. 

Viscount —The title of honour next below 
an earl. 

Baron —The title of honour next below a ; 


viscount, ana the lowest in the English 
peerage. 

Archbishop —Theprincipal of the bishops 

Bishop —A clergyman at the head of a 
diocese. 

Baronet— An hereditary title of honour 
the only one enjoyed by tile commonalty. 

Knight—A title of honour ; not hereditary 

Admiral —The commander of a fleet. 

Ambassador —A person sent in a public 
manner from one sovereign power to ano 
tiler 

Dope —The bishop of Rome. 

Czar —A title of the emperor of Russia. 

Mayor —'Pile chief officer of a corpora¬ 
tion. 

Mandarin—A Chinese magistrate oi 
noble. 








GLOSSARIAL INFORMATION, 


ACHROMATIC, applied to glasses, 
svhich are contrived so as to correct the 
aberrations of light and colour in tele¬ 
scopes. 

Acme, the height or crisis of anything. 

Acoustic, relative to the propagation or 
production of sound. 

Acrustie, a poem in which the first letter 
of each line forms one of a name, title, or 
motto. 

Aeriform, having the form or properties 
of air. 

Aerolyte, a meteoric stone s a stone 
which falls from the atmosphere under 
certain circumstances. 

Aerostation , means simply the weighing 
of the air ; but has been employed (incor¬ 
rectly) in the science of aeronautics, as 
the art of raising substances into the at¬ 
mosphere by means of heated air or light 
gases. 

/Esthetics implies the perception and the 
study of those qualities which constitute 
the essential and artistic, and form the 
finer essence of all productions of fine 
art. It carries with it a more exact and 
philosophic meaning than the word Taste. 

Affinity, relation to, connection with, 
resemblance to. 

Air, an invisible, transparent, colourless, 
inodourous, and tasteless fluid, surround¬ 
ing the earth, and essential to the support 
of animal and vegetable life 

Alchemy, a chemical art, by which the 
adepts of former times sought to trans¬ 
mute other metals into gold, and to pre¬ 
pare a fluid called Elixir vitae, by which 
disease and death were to be avoided by 
its possessor. 

Alcohol, the intoxicating principle of 
wine, &c. 

Alimentary Canal, that part of the in¬ 
testines through which the food passes, 
and from which its nutritive portions are 
conveyed to the blood by the absorbents. 

Alkalies, peculiar substances which 
have a caustic taste, and a strong ten¬ 
dency to combine with acids, thus forming 
salts; by them the blue juices of vegetables 
are changed to green, and the yellow to 
brown. 

Allegory, a figurative discourse or story, 
in which something else is intended than 
is conveyed in the literal acceptation of 
the words used or the descriptions given. 

Alloy, in chemistry and metallurgy, a 
term generally applied to all combinations 
obtained by fusing metals with each other: 
thus brass is an alloy of copper and zinc ; 
bronze of copper and tin. 

Alluvial, having the qualities of allu¬ 
vium. In geology, the term is applied to 
those superficial stratified deposits of sand 
and gravel, ill many places abounding 

ith the remains of existing animals and 

lauts. Such deposits occur, in many 


I part*, hundreds of feet above the level of 
the present ocean, or that of any existing 
water by which they could have been 
formed. In many places the alluvial for¬ 
mations are of considerable thickness, 
and, in some instances, partially conso¬ 
lidated into rock. 

Alluvium, earth, sand, gravel, stones, 
and other transported matter, which has 
been washed away and thrown down by 
rivers, floods, or other causes, upon laud 
not permanently submerged beneath tha 
waters of lakes or seas. 

Altitude, height of placet space mea¬ 
sured upwards ; the angle of elevation of 
any of the heavenly bodies. 

Amalgama, the mixture of metals by 
amalgamation. 

Ammonia, a volatile alkali, obtained 
from animal and vegetable matter. 

Amphibia, animals which, having both 
lungs and gills, can live either in or out 
of water. 

Amphitheatre, a building of a circular 
or oval form, having its arena encom 
passed with rows of seats, rising gradually 
one above the other. 

Analogy, resemblance ; agreement in 
certain particulars; similarity of relation 
to other things. 

Analysis, the separation of a compound 
body into the several parts of which it con¬ 
sists ; the consideration of anything in 
arts, so that some particular is first consi- 
ered, then another ; the solution of any¬ 
thing, whether corporeal or mental, to it* 
first elements. 

Anatomy (comparative), the study of the 
structure of animals in general; (human), 
applied to the dissection of the human 
body. 

Annulate, formed into, or consisting of, 
rings or annular segments. 

Antediluvian, existing before the deluge , 
relating to things existing before the flood. 

Anterior, going before, either in regard 
to place or time; prior, previous. 

Anterior, the fore part, opposed to the 
posterior. 

Anthropography, a description of the 
varieties of the human race. 

Antidote, a medicine which prevents or 
removes the effects of poison. 

Antimony, a metal of a silvery white 
colour, with a considerable lustre; finely 
laminated when pure. In the act of slowly 
cooling, after being fused, it crystalizes 
into an octahedron, or its varieties. 

Antipodes, those people wholive on oppo¬ 
site sides of the globe, so that their feet are 
on the same straight lines passing through 
the centre of the earth. 

Apex, the tip or point of anything. 

Aphelion, that point of the orbit ofa 
planet or comet which is farthest from the 
sun. 







OI.OSSARIAL INFORMATION 


Apogee, that point of their orbits at 
which the sun, moon, or any planet is 
most distant from the earth ; the oppo¬ 
site of perigee. 

A Posteriori, a mode of reasoning, in 
which we deduce the cause from the effect. 

A Priori, a term used iu rhetoric and 
moral philosophy, as applying; to any ar¬ 
gil uient in which a subsequent fact is drawn 
from an antecedent fact. 

Aqua, the Latin word for water t a term 
much used in medical prescriptions and 
preparations. 

Aqueduct, commonly restricted in itsap- 

F licatiou to constructions, above che sur- 
ace of the ground, for carrying anything 
across valleys and over plains, from one 
place to another. 

Arborecultnre, the art of cultivating 
trees and shrubs for wood or ornamental 
purposes. 

Arboretum, in gardening, a place in a 
park, pleasure-ground, or nursery, in 
which a collection of trees, consisting of 
one of each kind, is cultivated. 

Archaiology, that branch of knowledge 
which refers to antiquity. 

Archimedian Screw, a machine for rais¬ 
ing water, consisting of a tube rolled in a 
spiral form round a cylinder. 

Artesian Well, a perforation or boring 
made in the earth, through which the 
water rises from various depths to the sur¬ 
face. 

Arts, those branches of manual perform¬ 
ance which require the exercise of skill 
and ingenuity, divided into the liberal and 
mechanical arts: the former comprehend¬ 
ing poetry, painting, sculpture, architec¬ 
ture, See ., See.; the latter, engineering, 
carpentry, masonry smith-work. See. — 
I’oetry, painting, music, sculpture, en¬ 
graving, Stc., are called the fine arts. 

Ascendant, in astrology, that part of the 
ecliptic at any particular time above the 
horizon, which is supposed by astrologers 
to have great influence on any person 
born at the time. 

Assaying, the process of testing the pu¬ 
rity of the precious metals. 

Astrologer, anciently used of one who 
understood* or explained the motions of 
the planets, without including prediction. 

Atlantic, relating to the ocean which lies 
between Europe and Africa on the one 
hand, and America on the other. 

Atmosphere, the sphere of air, with 
height from 4(1 to 50 miles, and having a 
pressure of about lalbs. avoirdupois on the 
square inch. 

Atomic Theory, the doctrine that all 
bodies are composed of ultimate atoms, 
differing in weight in different bodies. 

Aurora Borealis, streamers or northern 
lights. An electrical phenomenon seen 
frequently in the northern skies in clear 
frosty evenings. 

Aialanches, masses of snow, which 
being detached in great heights in the 
Alps, acquire enormous bulks by fresh ac¬ 
cumulations as they descend; and when 
they fall into the valleys below, often cause 
great destruction. 


BASS-RELIEF, in sculpture, a term for 
figures which do not stand out from the 
plane more than half their full propor¬ 
tions. 

Ranyan-tree, the branches of which 
spread to a great extent, and, dropping 
here and there, take root, and rapidly 
increase in size till they become as large 
as the parent stem, by means of which, 
the space of ground covered by a single 
tree is almost incredible — so great, it is 
said, as to be capable of affording shelter 
to a regiment of cavalry. It frequently 
covers three or four acres of ground. 

Barometer, ail instrument for measuring 
the weight of the atmosphere, and the 
variations in it, in order chiefly to deter¬ 
mine the changes of the weather. It is a 
glass tube filled with mercury, hermeti¬ 
cally sealed at one end ; the other open 
and immerged in a basin of stagnant 
mercury; so that, as the weight of the at¬ 
mosphere diminishes, the mercury in the 
tube descends, and as it increases, the 
mercury ascends; the column of mercury 
suspended in the tube being always equal 
to the weight of the incumbent atmo¬ 
sphere. 

Beau Ideal, the conception of perfect 
beauty. 

Bibliography, a history or description of 
books; tile knowledge of the history of li¬ 
terature. 

Biennial, continuing for two years. In 
botany, a plant which does not bear flow¬ 
ers and seed till the second year, after 
bearing which it dies. 

Biped, an animal with two feet. 

Bitumen, a name given to a number of 
inflammable substances found in a liquid 
or viscid state, and known as naphtha, pe¬ 
troleum, mineral tar, maltha or mineral 
pitch, asphalte, elastic bitumen, amber, 
and mineral tallow. It constitutes the in¬ 
flammable principle of coal, and is a com¬ 
pound of carbon and hydrogen. 

Blowpipe : in chemistry and mineralogy, 
an instrument used for the purpose of 
increasing the heat of a lamp or candle, 
in the same way as bellows are employed 
iu raising the temperature of a fire or 
furnace. Its simple form is that of a 
tapering tube, about eight inches long, 
and curved nearly at right angles, within 
two inches of its smaller extremity, which 
is as fine as a wire. 

Bade Light, an intense flame, produced 
by the union of the carburetted hydrogen 
and oxygen gases. 

CALORIC, the cause of the sensation of 
heat ; a fluid or condition diffused through 
all bodies. 

Capillary attraction, in natural philo¬ 
sophy, is that property of a fluid by which 
it rises above the level in tubes of smal 
diameter, in consequence of the attraction 
of the matter of the tube being greater than 
the power of gravitation. 

Capsule, a membranous or woody seed- 
vessel. 

Carbon, an undecomposed inflammable 
substance, one of the simple elementary 


I 




GI.OSSARIAL INFORMATION 


oilies. Charcoal is almost entirely com¬ 
posed of it. 

Carnivorous, applied to animals that live 
on (lesh. 

Celts, the early inhabitants of Britain, 
Gaul, Spain, and the south and west of 
Europe. 

Centrifugal force is that by which the 
parts of a body moving round a centre 
endeavour to recede from it. 

Chirology, the art of communicating or 
interchanging thoughts with the deaf and 
dumb, by means of certain signs made 
with the hands and lingers. 

Chlorine, an elementary substance, ob¬ 
tained in the gaseous state from sea salt 
acted upon by sulphuric acid. 

Chloroform, a new chemical agent, used 
as a substitute for sulphuric ether in sur¬ 
gery. 

Chorography, the description of a single 
district, or locality of a country. 

Chromatics, that branch of the science 
of optics which treats of the colours of 
light and natural bodies. 

Climax, is a beautiful series of repetitions 
by which the speaker rises gradually to a 
point of firmness and strength. Thus 
Cicero addresses Cataline, “ Does neither 
the night guard of the palace, nor the city 
watch, nor the people’s fear, nor the agree¬ 
ment of all good men, nor the meeting of 
the senate in this fortified place, nor the 
countenances and looks of this assembly, 
at all move you i” 

Cloud, a mass of vesicular vapour. The 
height of clouds varies to upwards of a 
mile, but is more frequently less than this. 

Coliseum, an elliptical amphitheatre at 
Rome, built by Vespasian, capable of coil 
tainiug one hundred thousand spectators. 

Colour, in natural philosophy, is that 
property in bodies, which, when acted 
upon by the rays of light, impresses us 
through tils medium of vision, with those 
sensations which we denominate colour. 
Light, although apparently white or co¬ 
lourless, is capable of being separated into 
seven tints or hues,—red, orange, yellow, 
green, blue, indigo, and violet, such as we 
naturally witness in the raiubow. These 
seven colours were designated by Newton 
primitive colours. 

Constellations, groups into which astro¬ 
nomers have divided the fixed stars. 

Convex, rising in a circular form on the 
exterior surface ; opposed to concave. 

Cosmogony, the science or theory of the 
formation of the world. 

Crucible, a small conical vessel, used by 
founders, chemists, and others, for hold¬ 
ing ores, metallic or other substances, 
requiring to be subjected to strong heat 
for fusion. 

Cryptography, the art of transmitting I 
secret information by means of writing, 
which is intended to be illegible except to 
the person to whom it is destined. 

Culmination, the passing of a star 
through the meridian. 

DEBRIS, ruins or rubbish; generally 
applied to the fragments of rocks. 


Decomposition, the reducing a body into 

its simple elements. 

Degree of latitude, is the 3f)0th part of 
the earth’s surface, north or south of the 
equator, and a degree of longitude the 
same part of the surface, east cr west of 
any given meridian. 

Delta, in geology, is the alluvial deposits 
formed at the mouths of rivers. 

Diagnosis, the act of distinguishing one 
disease front another. 

Dioptrics , the science of refractive vi¬ 
sion. 

Disc, the body and face of the sun, moon, 
or a planet, as it appears to us on the 
earth. 

Disintegrate , to separate the integrant 
parts of. 

Divergent, a term in optical science, to 
express rays of light receding from each 
other ; concave glasses make the rays di¬ 
verge, while convex glasses make them 
converge. 

Doric, pertaining to the Dorians, an 
ancient people of Greece, inhabiting the 
country near Mount Parnassus. 

Drawing — Daguerreotype, Photogenic, 
and Voltaic; these are the names given to 
three modern inventions connected with 
the fine arts, which are ultimately calcu¬ 
lated to create material changes in these 
departments of taste. 

Dredging Machine, an engine used to 
take up mud or gravel from the bottoms of 
rivers, docks, 8tc. 

ECLIPTIC, the sun’s path ; the great 
circle of the celestial sphere in which the 
sun appears to describe his annual course 
from west to east. 

Effluvium, or Effluvia, the minute par 
tides “ flowing out of” or exhaled from 
bodies, as in the case of putrefying matter. 

Electric Light, an invention of Mr. 
Staite’s, which, from its luminous and 
safe characteristics, must ultimately su¬ 
persede gas and all other sources of illumi¬ 
nation. 

Embouchure, a mouth or aperture, as of 
a river, cannon, 8tc. ; the mouth-hole of a 
wind instrument of music. 

Ephemerides, tables determining tile 
eclipses, aspects, and conjunctions of tile 
planets. 

Equator, a great circle of the terrestrial 
globe, equidistant from its poles, and di¬ 
viding it into two equal hemispheres ; one 
north and the other south. 

Estuary, an arm of the sea into which a 
river Hows. 

Ether, in astronomy, the subtile matter 
which fills space, finer and rarer than at¬ 
mospheric air ; in chemistry, a liquid of 
equal parts of alcohol and sulphuric 
aciu. 

FOCUS, in optics, the po>nt at or near 
which rays are collected by a lens or 
mirror. 

Fossil, all minerals were once called 
fossils, but geologists now use the word 
only to express the remains of animals and 
plauts found buried in theearth 




OLOSSARIAL INFORMATION 


GALAXY, in astronomy, the milky i 
way ; the long white luminous track in | 
the heavens, forming nearly a great circle 
of the celestial sphere, iuclined to the 
ecliptic at an angle of 60°. 

Galvanism, that branch of physical 
science, by which electricity is produced 
by connecting dissimilar metals, and an 
intervening and oxidating fluid. In its 
action on the human body it resembles 
electricity. 

Gas, in chemistry, a body, the constitu¬ 
ent particles of which have been so ex¬ 
panded by heat as to become aeriform. Gas 
is distinguished from stearn or vapour by 
this circumstance, that vapours are raised 
from all fluids by heat, and are again con¬ 
densed by cold into the same fluid form ; 
but gases are obtained from the substances 
containing them only by chemical decom¬ 
position, whether this be spontaneous or 
artificial. They are either not condensa¬ 
ble, or only so when submitted to an ex¬ 
cessive pressure or degree of cold. Fourof 
the gases are simple substances: oxygen, 
hydrogen, nitrogen, and chlorine. The 
rest are more or less compound, as car¬ 
bonic acid gas is a compound of oxygen 
and carbon; sulphurous gas, of sulphur 
and oxygen, Ac. 

Gastric-juice, the thin pellucid liquid 
which distils from certain glands in the 
stomach, tor the dilution of the food. 

Geocentric, the centre of the earth, or 
that which relates to it. 

Glacier, a name given to an immense 
accumulation of ice and snow on a moun¬ 
tain. 

Gneiss, a rock generally composed of the 
same ingredients as granite—viz., quartz, 
felspar, and mica. 

Gnomonology, the art of clock-making. 

Granite is a platonic rock that seems to 
have been consolidated from a state of 
fusion at a considerable depth below the 
surface of the earth, and to have been 
denuded and raised to the surface during 
the lapse of time, so as now to form the 
summits of lofty mountains. 

Gravity, in science, the natural tendency 
of bodies to fall towards a centre, usually 
the centre of the earth. 

Gun Cotton, an explosive compound of 
vegetable origin, combined with certain 
acids. 

Gymnastics, the art of performing ath¬ 
letic exercises. 

Gypsum, a mineral composed of lime 
and sulphuric acid, hence called also sul¬ 
phate of lime. 

HELIOCENTRIC, in astronomy, an 
epithet applied to the place of a planet, as 
seen from the centre of the sun, in opposi¬ 
tion to its geocentric place, as seen from 
the centre of the earth. 

Homeopathy . in pathology and thera¬ 
peutics, a method of practice which con¬ 
sists in the employment of various medi¬ 
cinal agents in exceedingly minute doses. 

Horticulture, the cultivation of esculent 
vegetables, fruits, and ornamental plants, 
and the formation and management of 


rural scenery for the purposes of utility 
and embellishment. 

Hydraulics, the science of the motion of 
fluids, and the construction of all kinds of 
machines relating thereto. 

Hydrogen, a colourless, inodorous, taste¬ 
less body, always gaseous when uncom 
bined : a powerful refractor of light; the 
lightest body in nature, and hence the 
best material for filling balloons. 

Hydrography,the soience which describes 
gulfs, lakes, rivers, and other accumula¬ 
tions of water. This term implies the 
same thing in regard to water as geogra¬ 
phy does to land. 

Hydrostatic balance, a balance used for 
weighing substances in water, for the 
purpose of ascertaining their specific 
gravities. 

Hydrostatics, that branch of hydrody¬ 
namics which relates to the pressure and 
equilibrium of the fluids commonly called 
non-elastic, as water, mercury, &c. 

ICEBERG, the name given to the 
masses of ice, resembling mountains, often 
found floating in the polar seas. They are 
sometimes formed in the sea itself by the 
accumulation of ice and snow; at other 
times they seem to be glaciers which 
have been piling up on a precipitous 
shore, till broken off and launched into the 
ocean by their own weight. Masses of this 
kind have been found in Baffiu’s Hay two 
miles long and half a mile in breadth, 
rising from forty to 200 feet above the 
water, and loaded with beds of earth, 
gravel, and rocks. Some idea of the size 
of these icebergs may be formed from 
the fact, that the mass of ice below the 
level of the water is about eight times 
greater than that above. As they float 
towards warmer regions, they gradually 
dissolve, droppiug their burden of rock 
debris, and thus strewing the bottom of 
the ocean with clay;, gravel, and boulder 
sto#es, some of which are many tons in 
weight. 

Idea, that which the mind perceives in 
itself, or is the immediate object of per¬ 
ception, thought, or understanding. In a 
popular sense, the term signifies notion, 
conception, thought, opinion, and even 
purpose or intention ; an opinion ; a pro¬ 
position. The term, in its most compre¬ 
hensive and now generally received accep¬ 
tation, is used to indicate every repre¬ 
sentation of outward objects through the 
senses, and whatever is the immediate 
object of thought. 

Ignis Fatuus, a kind of luminous meteor 
seen hovering over marshy places. TheTe 
have been instances of people being decoyed 
by these lights into places where they pe¬ 
rished, and hence the vulgar names ‘Will 
with-a-wisp’ and ‘ Jack-with-a-lantern.' 
The general opinion is, that this light is 
produced by the decomposition of animal 
or vegetable matter, or by the revolution 
of gases which spontaneously inflame in 
the atmosphere. 

Incrustation, a crust or rough coat of 
anything on the surface of a body. 




GLOSSARIAL INFORMATION, 


Indigenous, native) born m a country) 
produced naturally iu a country or climate; 
not exotic. 

Induction, a consequence, inference, or 
general prineiple drawn from a number of 
particular acts or phenomena. “ The in¬ 
ductive philosophy.” says Whewell, “has 
been rightly described as a science which 
ascends from particular facts to general 
principles, and then descends again from 
those general principles to particular ap¬ 
plications.” 

Inertia, dulness; inactivity; defect of 
aptitude for spontaneous change of con¬ 
dition; a property of matter, by which it 
does not change its own state of rest or 
motion, but requires for that purpose the 
action of some external cause, to the 
magnitude of which the change is in 
proportion. 

Inorganic, not formed with the organs 
or instruments of life. 

Insolubility, the quality of not being 
soluble or dissolvable, particularly iu a 
fluid. 

Instinct, the operation of the principle 
of organized life by the exercise of certain 
natural powers directed to the present or 
future good of the individual ; the general 
property of the living principle, or law of 
organized life, in a state of action. 

Intaglio, in sculpture and gem-engraving, 
a stone in which the subject is hollowed 
out, so that an impression from it would 
present the appeal ance of a bass-relief. 

Ivory, the substance composing the 
tusks of the elephant. The tusks or teeth 
of the sea-horse and hippopotamus are 
also used as ivory ; the latter being ex¬ 
ceedingly hard and white. Fossil ivory 
from the tusks of the mammoth, is found 
plentifully, and in a high state of preser¬ 
vation, in the islands and on the shores of 
the Frozen Sea. All of these ivories are 
used in the arts; but by far the most 
abundant source, so far as Britain is con¬ 
cerned, is the tusks of the male Agkrtic 
elephant, of which upwards of 200 tons 
are annually imported. 

K ALE IDOSCOPE, an optical instru¬ 
ment revived or invented by Sir David 
Brew'ster, and consisting of a tube, with 
plane mirrors or slips of glass so arranged 
in the interior, that small beads, pieces of 
coloured glass, and similar substances 
placed at the further end, are thrown (by 
turning the tube) into an endless variety 
of shapes, and are very useful iu suggesting 
patterns to cotton-printers and other 
tradesmen who manufacture figured ar¬ 
ticles. 

LAGOON, a term originally applied to 
those creeks and pools which abound 
along the coast of the upper Adriatic ; but 
now employed to designate all similar 
collections of water, in whatever region 
they occur. Lagoons are sometimes of 
considerable depth (those enclosed by 
circular coral islands); but generally they 
are so shallow (those of deltas' 1 as to emit 
noxious exhalations. 


Larva, in entomology, the grub or cater 

pillar state of an insect. 

Latent Heat, that which Is insensible to 
the thermometer, upon which the liquid 
ami aeriform state of bodies depend, and 
which become sensible during the conver¬ 
sion of the vapours into liquids, and of 
liquids into solids. 

Latitude, in astronomy, the distance of 
a star north or south of the ecliptic. In 
geography, the distance of any place on 
the globe, north or south of the equator. 

Lava, the stone which flows in a melted 
state from a volcano. 

Lias, in geology, the name of a series of 
argillaceous and calcareous strata, forming 
the basis of the Oolitic system. 

Ligament, a strong compact substance, 
softer than a cartilage, but harder than a 
membrane, serving either to bind one bone 
of an animal to another, or to connect the 
valves in bivalve shells. There is another 
substance called the cartilage, which is 
elastic and of a condensed fibrous struc¬ 
ture, placed within the ligament, either 
close to it, or at a more interior part of the 
shell; it is sometimes contained in a pit 
formed for its reception, in the centre of 
the hinge. This substance being elastic, 
keeps the valves open, unless drawn to¬ 
gether by the counteracting force of the 
adductor muscles. When conchologist* 
speak of a shell as having the ligament 
external, the real meaning is that these 
two substances are so close together, as in 
appearance to constitute one body. 

Light, that ethereal agent or matter, of 
the presence of which we are informed by 
the sensibility of the visual organs. Some 
maintain that light is a peculiar matter, 
which is projected in all directions from 
luminous bodies in a rapid succession of 
material particles ; but, from recently-dis¬ 
covered properties of light, especially its 
polarization, the doctrine of Descartes, 
Huygens, and Euler has been revived, 
namely, that all the pheuomeua of light 
depend on the undulations of a highly at¬ 
tenuated fluid orether, universally diffused 
throughout space, which, while at rest, 
is appreciable by our senses, hut, when 
acted on by luminous bodies,is thrown into 
a succession of waves. 

Lightning, an electric phenomenon pro¬ 
duced by the passage of electricity between 
one cloud and another, or between a cloud 
and the earth. 

Lithography, the art by which impres¬ 
sions or prints are obtained by a chemical 
process from designs made with a greasy 
material on stone. 

Loam, a soil composed of various earths, 
of which the chief are silicious sand, clay, 
aud carbonate of chalk. 

Longitude, the distance of any place on 
the globe from another place, eastward or 
westward, or the distance of any place 
from a given meridian. 


MAGNET, a substance endowed with 
the property of attracting iron, and also 
of pointing itself in a certain direction. 




GLOSSARIAL INFORMATION. 


These properties it is capable of commu¬ 
nicating to iron and steel bars. 

Marl, a mixture of clay and lime, usu¬ 
ally soft, but sometimes bard, iu which 
case it is called indurated marl. 

Materialism, a doctrine which denies the 
existence of a spiritual or immaterial prin¬ 
ciple in man, called the mind or soul, dis¬ 
tinct from matter; or which, in other 
words, deuies the immateriality of the 
soul. 

Mutter, the substance of which all bo¬ 
dies are composed; it is of two kinds, 
solid and fluid. In its solid form matter is 
the element of which the systems of organs 
are composed ; and organs are the instru¬ 
ments by which functions are performed : 
in all animals there are seven systems of 
organs to perform seven series of func¬ 
tions. The seven systems of organs and 
their respective functions are these : — 
bones, for support ; muscles, for motion ; 
air-tubes, for respiration ; blood-vessels, 
for circulation ; alimentary canal, for di¬ 
gestion ; nerves, for sensation ; and the 
organs of the sexes, for re-production. 

Maximum, the greatest extreme, as dis¬ 
tinguished from minimum; the greatest 
quantity attainable iu a given case. 

Mechanical philosophy, the science of 
mechanics ; applied to physical inquiries, 
or, on the other hand, the application of 
the laws of general science to the improve¬ 
ment and construction of machinery. 

Mercury, in mineralogy, a metal found 
chiefly in the state of a sulphuret. It is also 
found native. It is liquid at common tem- 

F eratures, and is white and very brilliant. 

t freezes and assumes a crystaline appear¬ 
ance at 400 below zero. Its specific gravity 
is 13 5 ; its equivalent is 200. 

Meridian, in astronomy, a great circle 
of the celestial sphere, passing through the 
poles of the world, as also through the 
zenith and nadir, and crossing Ihe equi¬ 
noctial at rightangles. It divides the sphere 
into two hemispheres, eastern and western, 
and is called meridian from the Latin me- 
ridies, mid-day, or noon, because, when 
the sun comes to this circle, it is then mid¬ 
day or noon to all under it. In geography, 
a great circle on the terrestrial sphere, 
passing through the north and south poles 
and any given place ; thus the meridian of 
London is that circle which passes through 
London and the poles of the earth. 'I hese 
meridians are as numerous as the places 
on tlie earth, and the first meridian is that 
from which the reckoning commences. 
This is fixed differently by different na¬ 
tions, the capital of each country being 
mostly chosen as the first meridian for 
their respective globes. 

Mesmerism, an agent (supposed by its 
advocates) by which one person can com¬ 
municate certain influences at will to the 
mind of the person mesmerized, or put 
into a state of sleep, in which questions 
are answered, fixidity of limb and other 
phenomena produced. 

Metals, a class ofcompact, heavy, opaque 
bodies, distinguished, in different degrees, 
by the following general properties Mal¬ 


leability, ductility, fusibility, tenacity, 
elasticity, and crystaline texture. The 
following is u table of the metals, arranged 
according to the order in which they have 
been discovered, with the names of i lie pel- 
sons who discovered or first described 
them :— 

1. Gold.*5 Known to the an- 

2. Silver . cients. Gold and silver 

3. I ron . are termed noble rnelals : 

4. Copper. > the former of these was 

5. Mercury... considered as the metal- 

Lead.. lie element; the rest 

Tin . J were called bate metals 

Antimony.15. Valentine lath cent. 

Zinc .Agricola ....1520 


fi. 

7- 

8 . 

9 . 

It). 


Bismuth 


... Paracelsus ..llith cent 


. 

13. Platinum.Wood.1741 

14. Nickel .Cronstedt....l75I 

15. Manganese ....Sclieele, &c. 1774 

16. Tungsten ...,..D’Elhuyart..l/81 

17- Tellurium ....Muller.1782 

18. Molybdenum ..Ilielm .1782 

19. Uranium .Klaproth ....1783 

20. Titanium ....Gregor ......1/91 

21. Chromium ....Vauquelin ..1/97 

22. Colnmliium.Hatchett ....1802 

23. Palladium .. I Wollaston ..1803 

24. Khodium .... J 

25. Iridium.Descotils,&C.1S03 

26. Osmium .S. Tennant..1803 

27. Cerium.Berzelius,8tc. 1804 

28. Potassium 

29. Iodium. | 

30. Barium .... >Sir H. Davy 1807 

31. Strontium .. J 

32. Calcium .... J 

Cadmium.Stromcyer ..1818 

Lithium .Arfwedson ..1818 

Selenium.Berzelius,&.c. 1818 

• Berzelius ....1824 


33. 

34. 

35. 

36. Silicium .... 1 

37. Zirconium ../ 

38. Aluminium,. -1 

39. Glucinium .. f Wohler.1S2S 

40. Yttrium .... 

41. Thorium .Berzelius ....1829 

42. Magnesium ....Bussy, &c. ..1829 
Metaphysics, the science of the principles 

and causes of all things existing, or that 
which regards the ultimate grounds of 
being as distinguished from its phenome¬ 
nons modifications. The science lias been 
divided into six parts—ontology, cosmolo¬ 
gy, anthropopbosy, psychology, pneuiuato- 
logy, and metaphysical theology. 

Meteor , a term applied by some authors 
to denote all the various phenomena of the 
atmosphere, while others apply it exclu¬ 
sively to denote those luminous bodies 
which appear at a considerable height 
above the earth. They sometimes proceed 
in this hemisphere from north to south 
with vast velocity, frequently breaking into 
several smaller ones, sometimes vanishing 
with a report, and sometimes not. Many 
arise from the refraction or reflection of 
light from the aqueous particles suspended 
in the air—these are called luminous me¬ 
teors ; such are halo, mirage, rainbow, 
&c.; while those that present the appear¬ 
ance aud phenomena of combustion are 






























GLOSSARIAL INFORMATION 


igneous meteors—such are falling stars, 
lightning, the aurora borealis, &c. 

Mica, a mineral, one of the ingredients 
of granite, gneiss, and mica slate. 

Milky Way, in astronomy, that great 
luminous hand which stretches, evevy 
evening, all across the sky, from horizon 
to horizon, and which, when traced with 
diligence, and mapped down, is found to 
form a zone completely surrounding the 
whole sphere, almost in a great circle. 
This remarkable belt has maintained, from 
the earliest ages, the same relative posi¬ 
tion among the stars . and when examined 
through telescopes, is found to consist 
entirely ofstars, scattered by millions, like 
glittering dust on the ground of the general 
heavens. 

Mind, an essential element in the com¬ 
position of every animal. Though it can 
neither prevent the existence, nor change 
the characters of mailer, motion, or sensa¬ 
tion (the other essential elements), it 
takes cognizance of causes, and provides 
for consequent effects, before the other 
elements can obey its behests. Of the con¬ 
nexion of mind with the organs which it 
commands, we know nothing, mind itself 
is only known by its effects; its commands 
are carried by the nerves,—a fact ascer¬ 
tained by separating a nerve; after which 
separation, the mind no longer controls the 

arts to which that nerve extended its 

ranches. 

Minimum, the least, as distinguished 
from maximum, the greatest. 

Mirage, the name given by the French to 
an optical deception produced by refrac¬ 
tion, and in which a distant ship appears as 
if transferred into the sky, and a village in 
the desert as if built upon a lake. 

Mnemonics, the art of refreshing memory 
of particular things by artificial aids. 

Motion. The fates of motion are as fol¬ 
lows, as delivered by Sir I. Newton:— 
First, every body perseveres iu its state of 
rest, or uniform motion in a right line, 
until a change is effected by the agency of 
some external force. Second, any change 
effected in the quiescence or motion of a 
body, is in the direction of the force im¬ 
pressed, and is proportional to it in quan¬ 
tity. Third, action and re-action are 
equal and in contrary directions. 

Mucus, a viscous animal fluid, secreted in 
the body to moisten the mucous membrane, 
which is a continuation of the skin, carried 
into all passages of the body that commu¬ 
nicate by openings with the external air. 

A EBULA, in astronomy, a name given 
to certain nebulous appearances observ¬ 
able in the heavens. 1. To clusters of 
stars, in which stars are clearly distin¬ 
guishable. 2- Resolvable nebulae, or such 
as excite a suspicion that they consist of 
stars, and which any increase of the opti¬ 
cal power of the telescope might be 
expected to resolve into distinct stars. 3. 
Nebulae, properly so called, in which there 
is tio appearance whatever of stars. 4. 
Planetary nebulae. 5. Stellular, and 6 
Nebulous stars. 


Nitric Acid, a heavy yellow liquid, pro¬ 
cured by the chemical combination of oxy¬ 
gen and nitrogen gas. The nitric acid is 
of considerable importance in the arts. 
Diluted with the sulphuric and muriatic 
acids, it forms the well-known liquid, 
aquafortis, which is used for the purpose 
of etching on copper, &c., also as a advent 
of tin, to form with that metal a mordant 
for some of the finest dyes. It is also of 
great use in medicine and various chemical 
processes. 

Nitrogen, a simple gaseous body which 
forms a constituent part of nitric acid, and 
which, from being unrespirable, and inca¬ 
pable of supporting animal life, has like¬ 
wise been called azote, (from a, priv. and 
zoe, life, Gr.) It is generally obtained by 
burning a piece of phosphorus in ajar, 
full of air, inverted over water. It is co¬ 
lourless, inodorous, and tasteless,—is not 
absorbed by water, and produces no effect 
on vegetable colours. 

Module, in mineralogy and geology, a 
rounded regular lump or mass. 

Nomenclature, a list or catalogue of the 
more usual and important words in a lan¬ 
guage, with their significations. 

Nosology, the classification and arrange¬ 
ment of diseases. 

Nucleus, the central parts of a body, also 
the points about which matter is collected. 

Numismatics , the science of coins and 
medals. 

A’ufafton, in astronomy, a tremulous 
or vibrating motion of the earth’s axis, by 
which its inclination to the plane of the 
ecliptic is continually varying, being in its 
annual revolution twice inclined to the 
ecliptic, and as often returning to it* 
former position. 

OOLOGY, a treatise on the eggs of 
birds. 

Optics, that branch of physical science 
which explains the formation of images or 
objects, as depending on the known laws 
by which the modifications of light are go¬ 
verned. Practical optics, is that part of 
science which applies the physical proper¬ 
ties of light, and the mathematical laws of 
optics, to the construction of useful opti¬ 
cal instruments. 

Ore, the compound of a metal and some 
other substance, as oxygen, sulphur, or 
carbon, termed its mineralizer. Metals 
found free from such combination are 
termed native metals : metal. A Swedish 
coin, the twelfth of a skilling, a skilling 
being worth rather more than a penny. 

Organic disease, a disease iu which the 
structure of some organ of the body is in a 
morbid state, as the lungs in pulmonary 
consumption. Organic laics, iu political 
economy, laws concerning the funda¬ 
mental constitution of the state. Organic 
remains, the remains of animals or plants 
found in a fossil state. Organical descrip¬ 
tion of curves, the method of describing 
curves on a plane by the regular motion of 
a point. 

Oscillation : the term is particularly ap 
plied to the motion of a pendulum. Axis 



gloss aria i information 


of oscillation, a right line passing through 
the point of suspension, parallel to tile 
horizon. Centre of oscillation , that point 
in a pendulum in which its whole moving 
force is concentrated, and at which, if it 
meet with resistance, it instantly stops, 
without vibration or strain of the other 
parts. 

Ovo-viviparous, an epithet applied to 
animals which, like the salamander and 
the viper, never lay eggs, but hatch them in 
the body; so that, though originally con¬ 
tained in eggs, the offspring are brought 
forth in a living state. 

Oxalic acid, a poisonous acid obtained 
from sugar. It is often called salt of 
sorrel, and as such it is used to take 
stains out of furniture, dresses, &c. It is 
also extensively used as a bleaching mate¬ 
rial, and to clean boot-tops. 

Oxide, a substance combined with oxy¬ 
gen, without being iu the state of an acid. 
Some substances are capable of different 
degrees of oxidation. Thus we have black 
and white oxide of mercury; and in che¬ 
mical nomenclature, the terms protoxide, 
dentoxide, tritoxide, Ike., are employed to 
denote the first, second, third, 8cc. degrees 
of oxidation. 

Oxygen, an elementary body which some¬ 
times exists in the solid or fluid form, but 
w hich can only be examined in the state of 
a gas. It is the most extensively diffused 
substance in nature, forming 21 percent, 
by volume of the atmosphere, and eight- 
ninths by weight of the waters of the globe. 
It is the great supporter of life and com¬ 
bustion, and, in combination with other 
substances, it form oxides and acids. 

PACE, the distance between the two 
feet in walking, commonly estimated at 
two and a half feet ; but the geometrical 
pace is double that distance, or the whole 
space passed over by the same foot from 
one step to another—a degree on the equa¬ 
tor measures 60,W)0 such paces. 

Pacific Ocean, the ocean between America 
on the east, and Asia and Australia on the 
west. The name was given to it by IVlagal- 
haens, the fiist European who visited it, 
on account of his enjoying fair weather 
immediately on entering this vast expanse 
of w ater, after having experienced stormy 
weather and tempestuous gales in passing 
through the straits which still bear his 
name. 

Parallax, in astronomy, the difference 
between the position of a celestial body as 
seen from the surface of the earth, and 
that in which it would be seen if the 
observer were placed at the centre of the 
earth. 

Parhelion, mock-sun, a meteor which 
consists in thesimultaneous appearance of 
several suns, which are fantastic images of 
the true one. No satisfactory explanation 
of these curious but very rare phenomena 
has been yet given. 

Peat, a kind of brown earth, formed in 
humid situations by the decay of the roots 
and twigs of various plants, particularly the 
Spagnum palu.“~t, and other moss plants. 


Perigee, the point of the moon’s orbit in 
which she is nearest to the earth. The op¬ 
posite point is called the apogee. 

Perihelion, the point in the earth’s orbit 
in which it is nearest the sun. It is 
sometimes w ritten perihelitim. 

Phantasmagoria, an optical representa¬ 
tion, resembling those produced by the 
magic lantern, or in a similar manner. 

Pharmaceutical, relating to the know¬ 
ledge or act of pharmacy, or to the 
preparation of medicines. 

Pharmacy, that branch of science which 
relates to the medical and chemical his¬ 
tory of the different articles of the Materia 
Medica, as also to the mode of prescrib¬ 
ing their effects and composition. 

Phenomenon, whatever is presented to 
the eye by observation or experiment, or 
whatever is discovered to exist, as the 
phenomena of the natural world. In 
natural philosophy, an appearance of 
nature, of which the cause is not imme¬ 
diately obvious, whether occurring natu¬ 
rally, or by the intervention of human 
agency. 

Philology, that branch of literature 
which comprehends a knowledge of the 
etymology or origin and combination of 
words, and whatever relates to the laws by 
which language is governed and regulated, 
including the history, affinity, and present 
state of language. In a more general sense 
it includes a knowledge of rhetoric, poe¬ 
try, antiquities, history, criticism, fkc. 

Philosopher’s stone, an imaginary sub¬ 
stance, supposed by the old alchemists to 
possess the virtue of converting the baser 
metals into gold, and curing all kinds of 
disease. 


Phonographic, descriptive of the sounds 
of the human voice. 

Phosphate of lime, a salt consisting of 
lime, 59'0, and phosphoric acid, 41*0. 
It is destitute of taste, insoluble in water, 
j and not affected by exposure to the at- 
1 mosphere. It constitutes the base of the 
| bones of animals. Mineral phosphate of 
lime contains several species, as apatite, 
asparagus stone, &c. 

Phosphorus, a highly inflammable ele¬ 
mentary substance, obtained by an elabo¬ 
rate chemical process from bones. 

Phologenic, an epithet applied to the 
process discovered by M. Daguerre, of 
fixing on the polished surface of a metallic 
plate, by means of certain preparations, 
and the use of an instrument of the nature 
of a camera obscura, a correct likeness of 
any object reflected thereon. 

Phrenology, the science of mind, or of 
its faculties, dispositions, &c , as studied 
through the peculiar dev dopment of the 
cranium of the individual. 

Physics, in its most extended sense, the 
whole study of natural philosophy ; in a 
more restricted sense, itis a science which 
regards the properties of bodies, consi¬ 
dered in masses, as opposed to chemistry, 
which studies their elementary principles, 
and to natural history, which observes 
their physiognomy or general appearance. 

Physiology, the science which treats of 





GLOSSARIAL INFORMATION. 


tlie phenomena of organized beings, or 
that which describes the changes which 
take place in the assimilation of inorganic 
into organic matter. 

Physiognomy, the art of perceiving 
character from the features of the face. 

Photography, the description and naili¬ 
ng of plants. 

Phytology, a treatise on or description 
of the growth, the kind, and the virtues 
of plants. 

Pix, the little box or chest in which the 
consecrated host of the Roman Catholic 
Church is kept. A box kept at the British 
mint, in which a small sample of the coins 
struck is deposited, in order to be assayed 
and compared with a standard preserved 
in the Exchequer. 

Planet, literally, that which wanders ; 
a celestial body revolving round another; 
the name given by the ancient Greeks to 
a few bright and conspicuous stars which 
are constantly changing their place in the 
celestial sphere, and thus appear to wander 
among the constellations. 

Plano, a pref x, signifying flat. Plano¬ 
concave, flat on one side and concave on 
the other ; plano convex, flat on one side 
and convex on the other; piano-conical, 
flatonone side and conical on theother; 
piano-horizontal, having a level horizontal 
surface imposition ; plano-subtilaie, smooth 
and awl-shaped. 

Plalinum , a metal so called on account 
of its silvery appearance, or from the river 
Vlata in South America, near which it 
was first found. It is the heaviest sub¬ 
stance in nature; will not fuse with the 
strongest heat of our furnaces, and, from 
its capacity of resisting oxidation in air or 
water, it constitutes one of the perfect 
metals. 

Plutonic, in geology, unstratified, and 
formed by tile action of fire under the 
surface of the earth. Platonic rocks, in 
geology, unstratified rocks formed from a 
state of fusion beneath the surface of the 
earth, and not. like the volcanic forma¬ 
tions, at its surface. Plutonic theory, the 
opinions advanced by Ur. Hutton in regard 
to the igneous origin of granite and other 
unstratified rocks. 

Porphyry, purple. This term was ori¬ 
ginally applied to a reddish unstratified 
rock found in Egypt, and used by the 
ancients for statuary purposes. It is now 
employed by geologists to denote a reddish 
igneous rock containing imbedded crystals 
of felspar ; and all rocks (whatever their 
colour) which contain imbedded crystals 
distinct from their mass, are said to be 
porphyritic. 

Potash, impure carbonate of potassa, 
obtained by burning the ashes of land 
plants, lixiviating their ashes, and evapo¬ 
rating the solution to dryness. The car- 
onate thus obtained is known in commerce 

the names of potash and pearlash, and 
smuch employed in the arts, particularly 
n the formation of soap and the manu¬ 
facture of glass. 

Preadamite, an inhabitant of die earth 
prior to the existence of our first parents; 


one who believes that Adam was not the 
first human inhabitant of our earth. 

Primary Colours, the colours into which 
a ray of solar light may he decomposed. 
Newton supposed them to be seven : red, 
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and 
violet; while others have imagined them 
to lie reducible to three: red, yellow, and 
blue; or red, green, and violet;—the 
diversity of opinion seemingly arising from 
the difficulty of determining the exact 
tint of any particular colour, without 
regarding the portion of white with which 
it may be diluted. 

Prism, in optica, a triangular solid, com 
posed of glass or other diaphanous sub 
stance, by means of which tile solar ray 
may be decomposed into its various colours. 

Projectile, a body which, being put into 
violent force, is dismissed from tile agent, 
and left to pursue its course. Projectiles ,that 
branch of mechanical philosophy which 
treats of the motions of bodies impelled 
from the surface of the earth, and acted 
on by gravity and the resistance of the air. 

I Prussic Acid is a constituent of the 
water distilled from the leaves and hlos- 
J soms of several stone fruits. It is a clear 
limpid fluid, very combustible, burning 
with a reddish flame. It has a peculiar 
penetrating odour, similar to that of bitter 
almonds, and causes a flow of tears; it 
possesses a penetrating taste, which i» 
somewhat burning, and strongly bitter; 
its vapour, when inhaled, acts instantly as 
a powerful poison. 

Pulverize, to reduce to fine powder or 
dust. 

Pumice, a light, spongy, fibrous lava, 
produced by tile action of gases oil trachitic 
and other lavas. Pumice is very light, and 
swims on tile surface of water, its specific 
gravity being 9'0. In this country, it is 
chiefly used as a polishing powder when 
ground, or for smoothing the surface of 
painted work, icc., w hen used in the lump. 

Puseyism, a name given to the views of 
Dr. Pusey, which propose to carry hack 
the discipline and doctrine of the Church 
of England to an imaginary period, when 
there would have been no ground of 
separation between it and the Church of 
Rome, through which its teachers lay 
claim to apostolic succession. 

Pyrites, firestone, consisting of native 
compoundsof sulphur with iron or copper. 

QUARTZ, hydrate of silicon, or silex, 
witli some water of crystalization; it is a 
compound of a metallic basis, gilicium 
and oxygen. It is found under every 
variety of form, although iu its composi¬ 
tion it varies but slightly. 

Quintessence, in alchemy, the fifth or 
last and highest essence of power in a 
natural body; hence, an extract or 
substance containing the pure or essential 
part of a thing. 

Let there lie light, said God, and forth 
with light 

Ethereal, first of things, quintessence 
pure, 

sprung from the deep.— Milton, 





G L OSSA III A 1> INFORMATION. 


RADIATION, the shooting forth in all 
directions from a centre. 

Rainbow, a how, or an arch of a circle, 
consisting ofall the colours formed liy the 
refraction and reflection of the rays of 
light from drops of water or vapour, ex¬ 
isting in that part of the horizon which is 
opposite the sun ; when he is at the hori¬ 
zon, the rainbow is a semi-circle. Lunar 
rainbow, a phenomenon similar to the 
rainbow, hut produced by the light of the 
moon falling upon drops of rain Marine 
rainbow is sometimes observed in an agi¬ 
tated sea, when the wind, sweeping over 
the waves, raises them into spray, in 
which the sun’s rays are refracted as in a 
common shower. 

Rarefaction, the act of causing a sub¬ 
stance to become less dense; also the state 
of this lessened density. 

Refraction, the deviation of a moving 
body from a direct course. In optics, the 
deviation of a ray of light from its previous 
course, in entering a medium of a different 
density. Astronomical refraction is the 
apparent angular elevation of the celestial 
bodies above their true places, caused by 
the refraction of the rays of light in their 
passage through the earth’s atmosphere. 
Angle of refraction, the angle made by a 
ray of light and a perpendicular to the 
surface of the medium through which it 
is passing: it always bears a constant 
ratio to the angle of incidence, which 
ratio is called the index of refraction, and 
constitutes the measure of the refractive 
power of the medium. Double rejracliun 
is the separation of a ray of light into two 
separate parts, by passing through certain 
mediums, as Iceland spar. All crystals, 
except those whose primitive form is either 
a cube or a regular octahedron, exhibit 
double refraction. 

Relievo, in sculpture, the projecture or 
prominence of figures beyond or above 
the plane or ground on which it is formed ; 
it is divided into alto-relievo, basso-relievo, 
and demi-relievo, or high, low, and middle 
relief. In painting, the degree of force or 
boldness by which a figure seems at a due 
distance to stand out from the ground of 
the painting, as if really embossed. 

Repulsion, that property in bodies 
whereby they mutually tend to recede 
from each other. 

Retina, in anatomy, the pulpy expan¬ 
sion of the optic nerve in the interior of 
the eye : it is the seat of vision. 

SACCHARIC ACID, a product of the 
action of dilute nitric acid on cane or 
grape sugar ; the diluted acid is a colour- 
less, slightly acid liquid; when concen¬ 
trated, it is syrupy, colourless, strongly 
acid, and, by long standing, it deposits 
colourless crystals. It is also called oxclI~ 
hydric acid. , , , , 

Saxons . one of the nations and people who 
formerly dwelt in the north of Germany, 
and who invaded and conquered Eugland 
in the fourth and fifth centuries. 

Selenic Acid, a colourless liquid acid, 
having a strong affinity for water* and 


capable of dissolving zinc, iron, copper* 
and gold. 

Seven, among the Jews, was sacred, 
from the Sabbath or seventh day being 
set apart as a day of rest ; the seven 
branches of the candlestick, seven years of 
plenty and famine* the seventh or sabba¬ 
tical year; and, in the New Testament, 
tile seven golden candlesticks, tile seven 
churches, seven trumpets, seven seals* 
seven vials, &c., show the veneration at¬ 
tached to this number in the sacred 
writings. 

Silurian, in geology, a term applied to an 
extensive group of rocks well developed in 
Wales, the country of the ancient Silures, 
It consists chiefly of laminated sandstones, 
shales, and limestone. Some of the mem¬ 
bers of the system abound in organic re¬ 
mains. In age, the Silurian rocks are 
intermediate between the Plynlymon rocks 
and the old red sandstone. There are no 
similar deposits in Scotland. Their entire 
thickness is estimated at 2,-190 yards. 

Simoom, a hot, suffocating wind, which 
blows occasionally in Africa and Arabia. 
It is generated by the part bed deserts and 
sandy plains. Its approach is indicated by 
a redness in the air, and its fatal effects are 
only to be avoided by falling on the face 
and holding the breath. 

Siphon, a bent tube for drawing any 
liquid from a vessel without disturbing the 
sediment that may be at the bottom : being 
filled with water or other liquid, and the 
shorter end immersed in that which is to 
he drawn, the atmosphere, pressing on the 
surface of the fluid, forces a continuous 
stream through the tube. iill the surface of 
the liquid in the vessel becomes on a level 
with the lower end of the siphon on the 
on tside. 

Soda, the protoxide of sodium, an alka¬ 
line substance found native in mineral 
seams or crusts in Egypt; but in this 
country it is commonly obtained pure, by 
boiling a solution of the carbonate with 
half its weight of quicklime : in its original 
state it is of a grey colour and vitreous 
fracture, but by the addition of water it 
becomes white, crystaline, and volatile, 
and is then the substance called pure or 
caustic soda, but more properly the hydrate. 

Solstice, the term assigned to the two 
periods at which the sun enters the tropics 
of Cancer and Capricorn, which is respec¬ 
tively on the 21st of June and the 21st of 
December; hence summer and winter 
solstices. 

Solution, a liquid which contains another 
substance dissolved in it. Thus, in dis¬ 
solving salt in water, we obtain a solution 
of the salt, the term being applied both to 
the act of combination and to the result of 
the process. 

Species, the lowest link in the chain of 
scientific classification, and that which 
admits of no further division. A species 
comprehends all those animals which may 
reasonably be supposed to be descended 
from one common, original stock ; thus* 
all horses compose but a single species ; 
and, in the same manner, all oxen, shee^ 




GLQ8SARIAL INFORMATION 


goats, dogs, 8cc. compose respective and ap¬ 
propriate species; and where a marked 
difference in any of them exists, they are 
said to he varieties of the species. 

Spectrum, in optics, an elongated image 
of the sun or other luminous body, formed 
on a wall or screen by a beam of undecom¬ 
posed light, and refracted by a prism. 

Stalactite, a conical concretion of car¬ 
bonate of lime attached to the roof of a 
calcareous cavern, formed by the gradual 
dropping of the water holding the carbon¬ 
ate in solution. 

Steppes, the Russian name given to the 
vast system of plains peculiar to Northern 
Asia. It is synonymous with the prairies 
or savannahs of North America; and the 
pampas or lllianos of South America. 

Stratum means a bed or mass of matter 
spread out over a certain surface by the 
action of water, or, in some cases, by 
wind. The deposition of successive layers 
of sand and gravel in the bed of a river, 
or in a canal, affords a perfect illustra¬ 
tion both of the form and origin of stratifi¬ 
cation. 

Sublimation, the raising into vapour by 
means of heat, and condensing in the 
upper part of the vessel. 

Substratum, that which is laid or spread 
under; a layer of earth lying under ano¬ 
ther. In metaphysics, the matter or sub¬ 
stance supposed to form the basis in which 
the perceptible qualities inhere. 

Sulphate, a salt formed, by the union of 
sulphuric acid with a salifiable base. 

Sulphuric Acid, an acid that has been 
.oug known and very extensively employed 
when combined with water, in which state 
it is best known ; it was originally, and 
still is frequently called oil of vitriol. When 
urc, it is a dense, colourless, oily liquid ; 
oils at 620” F., and has a specific gravity, 
n its most concentrated form, of from 
2'847 to 1'850. It is one of the strongest 
acids with which chemists are acquainted, 
and, when undiluted, is powerfully corro¬ 
sive : it decomposes all animal and vege¬ 
table substances by the aid of heat, causing 
deposition of charcoal and formation of 
water : it has a strong sour taste, and 
reddens litmus paper, even though greatly 
diluted : it unites with alkaline substances 
and separates all other acids more or less 
completely from their combinations with 
the alkalis. 

Sycee Silver, the current silver among 
the Chinese. 

Symbol, the sign or representation of any 
moral thing by the images or properties of 
natural things ; thus, the lion is the symbol 
of courage, the lamb of meekness or pa¬ 
tience ; an emblem or type of something 
else, as the bread and wine in the eucha- 
rist are called the symbols of the body and 
blood of Christ. 

Synthesis, composition, or a putting to¬ 
gether ; the opposite ofarfalysis. In che¬ 
mistry, the uniting of elements into a 
compound, as in combining oxygen and 
hydrogen to form water, thus proving, by 
synthesis, that water consists of these 
gases. In logic and mathematics that 


rocess of reasoning oy whlcn we advance 

j a regular chain from principles before 
established or assumed, and propositions 
already proved, till we arrive at the con¬ 
clusion. In surgery, the operation by 
which divided parts are re-nnited. In an¬ 
tiquity, a large robe or cloak which the 
Romans put on to eat in, as a more com¬ 
modious habit for lying upon the beds or 
sofas at table. 

System, a composition ; a composition of 
many things acting harmoniously together. 
In science and philosophy, a system is a 
whole plan or scheme, consisting of many 
parts, connected in such a manner as to 
create a chain of natural dependencies ; or 
a regular union of principles or parts, 
forming one entire thing. Thus we say 
the planetary system, or the whole of the 
bodies supposed to belong to each other ; 
a system of botany, or that which compre¬ 
hends the whole science of plants ; a system 
of philosophy, or a theory or doctrine 
which embraces the whole of philosophy. 
The great utility of systems is to classify 
the individual subjects of our knowledge in 
such a way as to enable us readily to retain 
and employ them, and at the same time to 
illustrate each by showing its connection 
with all. 

TABLEAUX VIVA NTS, the name 
given to an amusement in which groups of 
persons, dressed in appropriate costume, 
are made to represent some interesting 
scene in the works of distinguished painters 
or authors. 

Talisman, a magical figure cut or en¬ 
graved under certain superstitious ob¬ 
servances of the configuration of the 
heavens, to which wonderful etfects were 
ascribed ; or the seal, figure, character, or 
image of a heavenly sign, constellation, or 
planet, engraved on a sympathetic stone, 
or on a metal corresponding to the star, in 
order to receive its influence. 

Tartaric Acid, the acid of tartar, which 
concretes upon the inside of wine-casks; 
it is contained in grape juice, and in tama¬ 
rinds, and several other fruits : when pure, 
it forms white crystals, composed of one 
equivalent of dry acid and two of water. 

Taxidermy, the art of arranging, pre¬ 
paring, and preserving the skins of ani¬ 
mals, birds, &c., so as to represent their 
natural appearance. 

Telegraph, a word signifying “ writing to 
or for a distant point,” and applied to tile 
various inventions by which news are 
communicated between distant spots by 
flags or other means. Electro-magnetic 
telegraph, an instrument or apparatus for 
communicating words or language to a 
distance by means of electricity. 

Teutonic race ( The ) appear originally to 
have emigrated from Asia into Europe, at 
different periods unknown to history. In 
the days of Julius Ctesar, Northern Ger 
many, Holland, Belgium, and a part of the 
countries oil the Middle Rhine, appear to 
have been inhabited by Teutonic nations 
belonging to the northern, or now Saxon 
brunch. 



9LOSSARIAL INFORMATION, 


Theology, the science which teaches the 
existence, character, amt attributes of 
God, his laws and government, the doc¬ 
trines we are to believe, and tlie duties we 
are to practise. Moral theology teaches 
us the divine laws relating to our manners 
and actions, that is, our moral duties. 
Scholastic theology is that which proceeds 
from reasoniug, or which derives the 
knowledge of several divine things from 
certain established principles of faith. 
Speculative theology teaches or explains 
the doctrines of religion as objects of 
faith. 

Theory, a doctrine which confines itself 
to the speculative parts of a subject with¬ 
out regard to its practical application or 
illustration. An exposition of the princi¬ 
ples of any science, as the theory of music. 
The philosophical explanation of pheno¬ 
mena, either physical or moral, as New¬ 
ton’s theory of optics ; Smith's theory of 
moral sentiments. Theory is distinguished 
from hypothesis, thus: a theory is founded 
on inferences drawn from the principles 
which have been established on independ¬ 
ent evidence ; a hypothesis is a proposition 
assumed to account for certain phenomena, 
and has no other evidence of its truth, than 
that it affords a satisfactory explanation of 
these phenomena. 

'Thunder, the sound which follows a 
discharge of electrical fluid in the atmo¬ 
sphere : when this explosion is near to a per¬ 
son, the thunder is a rattling or clattering 
sound, and when distant, the sound is 
heavy and rumbling; thunder is used for 
lightning, or for a thunderbolt, either 
originally through ignorance, or by way of 
metaphor, or because the lightning and 
thunder are closely united. 

Tide, the tides are a result of the com¬ 
bined attracting forces of the sun and 
moon; when these forces act in the same 
straight line, they give rise to spring-tides ; 
when they act at right angles to each 
other, they cause neap-tides. 

r ornado, a violent tempest, distin¬ 
guished by a whirling motion, and gene¬ 
rally happening after extreme heat. 1'liey 
are usually of short duration, and narrow- 
in breadth, hut accompanied with vivid 
lightning, loud thunder, and torrents 
of rain. 

. Torrid zone, that space or belt of the 
earth included between the tropics, ex¬ 
tending twenty-three and a half degrees on 
each side of the equator, over every point 
of which the sun is successively vertical, 
and where the heat is always great. 

Trinity, a word first used by Theophi- 
1 its of Antioch, in the second century, to 
describe the Divine Being as consisting 
01 three persons, father. Son, and lloly 
Ghost, united in one God. Fraternity 
of the Holy Trinity, a religious society, 
instituted at Home, by St. f'hilip Neri, in 
*1548. Trinity Sunday, the Sunday next 
.after Whitsunday, so termed from a feast 
held on that day in the Roman Catholic 
Church, in honour of the Holy Trinity. 

Tropic; in astronomy and geography, 
he tropics are two circles supposed to he 


drawn parallel to tne equinoctial line, one 
on each side of it, at the distance of 
twenty-three and a half degrees nearly. 
That on the north is called the Tropic 
of Cancer, and that on the south the 
Tropic of Capricorn. On the terrestrial 
globe these lines hound the torrid gone, 
and divide the north and south temperate 
zones. 

VACUUM, a space empty and devoid 
of all matter. 

Vapour, an invisible elastic fluid, ren¬ 
dered aeriform by heat, and capable of 
being condensed or brought back to the 
liquid or solid state by cold. 

Velocity, in natural philosophy, that 
affection of motion by which a body 
moves over a given space in a given 
time. Velocity is absolute or relative— 
absolute, when it moves over a certain 
space in a certain given time; and rela¬ 
tive, when it has respect to another 
moving body. 

Viaduct, a structure made for conveying 
a carriage-way from one road to another, 
either by a tunnel, mound, or arched 
supports, across a river or marsh. 

Vis inerticc, the power in bodies that are 
in a state of rest to resist any change that 
is endeavoured to he made upon them to 
change their state. This is implanted in all 
matter. Vis insila, that power by which a 
muscle, when wounded, contracts, inde¬ 
pendently of the will, and without its feel¬ 
ing pain. Vis mediatrix natural, expresses 
that healing power by which, when dis¬ 
eased, the body is enabled to regain its 
healthy action. Vis mortua, that pro¬ 
perty by which a muscle after death, or 
immediately after being cut from a living 
body, contracts. Vis nervosa, a power of 
the muscles by which they act when ex¬ 
cited by the nerves. Vis plastica, that 
facility of formation which spontaneously 
operates in animals. Vis vita:, the natural 
power of the animal machine in preserving 
life. 

WHITT LEAD, a carbonate of lead 
much used in painting. It is prepared by 
exposing sheets of lead to the fumes of an 
acid, and suspending them in the air until 
the surface becomes incrusted with a white 
coat, which is the substance in question. 

YEAH, the period in which thr revolu¬ 
tion of the earth round the sun, and the 
accompanying changes in the order of na¬ 
ture, are completed. The year, as regu¬ 
lated hy the sun, is called solar; and, as 
regulated by the moon, is called lunar. 
The solar year is the interval of time in 
which the sun finishes his apparent course 
through the zodiac, and contains 3bi days, 
5 hours, and 49 minutes. The lunar year 
consisted of 12 lunar months. But besides 
the solar and lunar years, we may mention 
the civil year, which different nations 
adopted without regard to astronomical ac¬ 
curacy, to render the computation of time 
in the common affairs of life more easy. 
The Jewish year consisted of 12 mouths. 



GLOSSARIAL INFORMATION 


unless it happened to be Intercalary, when 
it had 13. lhe ancient Hebrews used to 
regulate their months by the course of the 
gun, and each of them had 30 days: but 
after their captivity in Egypt, they adopted 
the lunar months, containing alternately 
29 and 30 days, in all 354 days. I his w as 
made to agree with the solar year by add¬ 
ing eleven and sometimes twelve days at 
the end of the year, or by an tmbnlismic 
month. They.had an ecclesiastical as well 
as a civil year; thefirst began in the month 
of Nisan or Abib, w hich answers to part of 
our March and April, because about this 
time the Israelites came out of Egypt. By 
this they reckoned their feasts. The se¬ 
cond began in the mouth Tisri, about the 
middle of our September, because they fan¬ 
cied the world to have been created about 
that time. The Roman year was lunar, 
which, as settled by Romulus, consisted of 
ten months, four of which contained 31, 
and the other six 30 days, in all 304 days; 
which fell 50 days short of the true lunar 
year, and 61 of the solar, 'lhe beginning 
of the year, according to this calculation, 
must necessarily be very vague and varia¬ 
ble; and to remove this inconvenience, 
Romulus required so many days to be j 
added to the year as should bring the state j 
of the heavens to a correspondence with 
the first month. These additional days 
were not incorporated with any months, or J 
called by any particular name. Romulus’s \ 
year began about the vernal equinox. The 
first month was March, then followed 
April, May, June, Quintilis, Sextilis, .Sep¬ 
tember, October, November, December: so 
that the numeral months were named ac¬ 
cording to their order in the series. Numa 
Pompilius, to correct and reform the year, 
made two months, January and February, 
of the days which used to be confusedly 
added to the year of Romulus. Numa’s 
year then consisted of 12 months, of which 
seven had 29 days, and the rest 31, except I 
February, which had only 28; in all, 355 
days; a number exceeding tile lunar, but 
falling short of the solar year ten days. I 
The year, therefore, upon this principle, 
must be vague and unfixed as to the time 
of its commencement. Numa, however, 


desirous of fixing it to the winter’s soistice. 
ordered 22 days to be intercalated every 
second year, 23 every fourth year, 22 every 
sixth, and 23 every eighth year; and these 
intercalations to be made in February. 
But this rule failing of its object, it was 
thought proper to add only 15 days every 
eighth year, instead of 23. l he care of the 
whole was committed to the Pontifex Max¬ 
imus, who, either by inattention or ignor¬ 
ance, suffered errors to creep in, and thus 
caused much confusion. Such was the 
state of the Roman year till the time of 
Julius Caesar. File year, as reformed by 
him, is a solar year, consisting of 365 days, 
except every fourth year, called bissextile, 
which contains 366, The Julian year, 
therefore, is 365 days, 6 hours, exceeding 
the solar year by 11 minutes, which in 131 
years amount to a whole day. Thus stood 
the year till the reformation of it made by 
Pope Gregory. The Gregorian year is, 
consequently, the Julian year corrected, 
and is the year now used in Europe. From 
the difference between this and the Julian 
year, arises the distinction of Old and New 

Style.-The Mahometans begin their 

year when the sun enters Aries ; the Per¬ 
sians in the mouth answering to our June; 
tile Chinese and most of the Indians begin 
it with thefirst moon in March. At Rome 
there are two ways of computing the year, 
the one beginning at the nativity of our 
Lord, which the notaries use ; the other in 
March, on occasion of the incarnation, 
and it is from this the papal bulls are dated. 
T he civil or legal year, m England, as well 
as the historical year, commences on the 
1st of January. T he church, as to her so¬ 
lemn service, begins the year on the first 
Sunday in Advent, which is always the 

next to St. Andrew’s day.-J ’ear and day 

in law, signifies a certain time that by law 
determines a right, or works prescription ; 
as in the case of an eslray, if the owuel 
should not challenge it within that time, 
it becomes forfeited to the lord; so of a 
wreck, &c. 

ZERO , the numeral 0. which fills the 
blank between the ascending and de¬ 
scending numbers of a series. 


A TABLE OF THE SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF BODIES. 


Baron 


eter, 30 inches.—Fahrenheit’s Thermom. 60°. 


From 

thb Works of 

Drs. Thompson, Young, and 

Urb . 


Platina 

• • « * 

22,069 

Nitre .... 

• • • 

1,900 

Gold ... 

• e • • 

19,360 

Ivory .... 

• • 

1,825 

Quicksilver 

• • 1 

13,568 

Brimstone . . 

• • • 

1,810 

Lead . . 

• • • • 

11,352 

C o al . . . . 

• • 

1,250 

Silver . . . 

• • • 

10,474 

Boxwood . . . 


1,030 

Copper . 

• • • 

8,878 

Sea Water ... 


1,026 

Brass ... 


8,396 

Common Water . 

• » • 

1,000 

Steel . , 

• • 

7,833 

Oak (English) . . 


760 

Iron (cast) . 

4 0 • • 

7,64a 

Walnut ... 

• • • 

671 

Tin . 

• e • 

7,32 u 

Cedar . . . . 

# m 

613 

Glass (crystal) . 

• • • • 

3,150 

Elm . , . , 

# , 

600 

Granite . 

• • • • 

3,11)0 

Willow . . . . 

• • 

585 

Marble (Parian) 

III* 

2,838 

Fir ... . 

• • • 

550 

FI it . . 

• • • • 

2,570 

Poplar . . . . 

• • 

383 

Bi.ck . . 

. 

2,000 

Cork .... 

• 

240 


Noth. —The several sorts of wood are supposed to be dry. 



























